
Rook . H 6 



PRESENTED BY 






EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

TO A KNOWLEDGE OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

CONTAINING THE 

PRINCIPLES* AND RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, 

CONFORMED TO THE BEST MODERN USAGES, 

AND ILLUSTRATED BY APPROPRIATE AND 
INSTRUCTIVE EXAMPLES ; 

A Philosophic Exposition of the derivation 
and original meaning of words: 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

A Key to False Syntax, and Punctuation, 

AND 

A HEW PAUSING KEY, 

In which the Parsing Lessons are, by means of Characters, 
briefly and comprehensively parsed: 

ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR PRIVATE LEARMERS AND SCHOOLS. 



i 



BY ROBERT S. HOLLO WAY. 



Language it the principal instrument of all intellectual knowledge. 



St, Clair srille: 

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, 

BY HORTON J. HOWARD. 
1833. 



TF//09 



Entered according to Act of Congress, ii>the year 1833* 

BY ROBERT S. HOLLOWAY, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Ohio. 



mpSott 
Do 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Cincinnati, April 15th, 1833. 
Mr. Robert S. Holloway— Dear Sir : Having examined the sys- 
tem of English Grammar prepared by you, and now in a course of 
publication, I can state that I consider it a decided improvement 
on all others. Its definitions are more exact and philosophical, its 
arrangement more perspicuous, and its examples' for correction 
and parsing more judiciously selected, than those of Murray, Kirk- 
ham, or in fact of any other author with whose works I am ac- 
quainted. — 1 have not seen the Parsing Key intended to be append- 
ed to the work, but from the explanation of it which you have 
kindly afforded me, I am inclined to consider it as a very important 
and useful addition, THO'S. J . MATTHEWS, President of 

Woodward High School. 

From A. & J. W. Picket, Principals of the Cincinnati Female 
Institution, Authors of the American School Class Books-, includ- 
ing a treatise on English Grammar. 
We ha«re examined with considerable care, Mr. HoIloway**s 
System of English Grammar. The arrangement of the matter* is 
coGd, the illustrations apt and excellent, the language clear and 
appropriate. The work claims attention on acconnt of its high 
merits, and as such we cheerfully recommend it. 
Cincinnati, April 22d, 1633, A. & J> W. PICKET. 

Frea J aha L§eke f M, D, Author of an lafliih Graemar, Outlines. 
efBot&HJ, &^ Principal of Cincinnati Female Academy. 
Ciaoinnati Female Academy, April 22, 1*833. 
IhavQ inspgeted a. work-entitled "Aa Easy and Lucid Guide to 
knowledge of English Grammar," and am satisfied thatitisono 
of thoie works calculated to make Grammar "easy and lucid" to 
beginners. There is certainly great need that grammar should 
cease to be merely memorized. The pupil should Be taught to ap- 
ply it — to make common sense of it. Evefy step towards doing this 
is a benefit to education, and this is accomplished by Mr. Hollo way. 

JOHN LOCKE, M. D. 

From Timothy Flint, Author of Francis Rerrian, History and Ge- 
ography of the Mississippi Valley, Szc. Sec. 
Mr. Holloway seems to have given our language a severe and in- 
telligent analysis. I have looked his grammar through with as 
much attention, as the state of my health will admit. I am much 
pleased with it . He is one of the few who has understood the lan- 
guage, of which he has written the grammar. He is uncommonly 
happy in his examples and exercises. This grammar being on the 
eclectic plan, he seems to have copied the excellencies, and avoid- 
ed the defects of the best in use. I deem it admirably qualified for 
a monitorial grammar in Lancastrian seminaries, from a new and 
original way of notation in the parsing example?, by which an in* 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

telligent monitor can hear a class, without being himself a gram- 
marian. TIMOTHY FLINT. 

I have read Mr. Holloway's Grammar, and believe with Mr* 
Flint, it will be useful in our schools. I intend to introduce it into 
my school before long. N, M. HENTZ. 

Cincinnati, April 23d, 1833. 

1 have read with much interest, Mr. Holloway's new work enti- 
tled "An Easy and Lucid Guide to a Knowledge of English Gram- 
mar," and am of the opinion that its merits fully justify the title 
that he has given to it. The author has shown that he is familiar 
with thephilososphy of our language. His definitions and elucida- 
tions will therefore be found, to be, not only correct, but well adap- 
ted to the purposes for which they are designed. The monitorial 
plan that pervades the lectures, together with the "Parsing Key" 
(a valuable discovery) is well calculated to improve the common 
teacher, as well as the popil. 

This w©rk contains some innovations, upon most,, if not all of 
the "Grammars" extant: but those innovations, it will be found, 
are supported by reason, and a correct knowledge of the English 
lamruae;e. W. B. HUBBARD. 

St. Clairsville, April 27th, 1833. 

Cincinnati, Apiil £0, 1833. 

Mr. Robert S. Holloway — Dear Sir: Having examined witk 
attention your "Easy and Lucid Guide to a Knowledge of Eng- 
lish Grammar," I am pleased with the simplicity of the arrange- 
ment, the perspicuous style in which it is written, and the philo- 
sophical manner in which you investigate thf principles ©f Gram- 
mar. It exhibits evidence of much labor and research, and an in- 
timate acquaintance with this branch of knowledge. The amount 
of philological learning that it contains will be interesting even to 
those who are quite advanced in the "Science of Language," as 
you have have aptly expressed it. 

I am of opinion that it deserves a wide circulation, and I cheer* 
fully recommend it to parents and teachers as a woik of gieat mer- 
it and worthy of public patronage. 

Very respectfully yours, &o. 

T, HAMMOND, Teacher. 

St. Clairsville, May 6, 1833. 
Mr, JR. S, Holloway—*DeaY Sir: I have examined your book and 
am of opinion that it facilitates the acquisition of the science of 
Grammar, By its use the learner may acquire an elementary un- 
derstanding of the rules which govern the language, and the 
teacher find his labors more efficient than in the employment of 
books, which leave greater voids for him to supply l)y oral [illustra- 
tion . 

To what others have written, you have added such original 
matter, as entitles you to the credit of having made a respecta<* 
ble contribution to the fund of Grammatical knowledge. 

Yours, &q. THOS. H, GENIN* 



RECOMMENDATIONS, 5 

Mr. Holloway — Dear Sir: Language, like religion, has suffered 
greatly from too much mystification. Our language has had its 
high Priests, Scribes, and Pharisees, who have neglected the 
"weightier matters of the law," that is, thej have not given the 
true definition and right use of words. Our errors and provincial- 
isms, although various, and spreading from Maine to Louisiana, are 
few comparatively speaking, and easily corrected, but hitherto no 
attempts to much extent have been made to correct them. From 
what I have seen of your grammar, 1 think it supplies this deficien- 
cy, and is a r;reat improvement upon Murray's. Such a work as 
yours, is loudly called for in our extensive Country. Accept my 
best wishes for your success, and believe me your friend. 

JAMES LAKEY, M. D. 

Cincinnati, April 17th, 1833. 

Cadiz, Nov. 12th, 1832. 
Having cursorily examined a system of English Grammar by 
Robert S. Holloway, we have no hesitation in saying, that we be- 
lieve it much to be preferred to any system of Grammar extant, 
in its simplicity and familiar style, and also in the judicious and 
philosophic method of treating the different parts of speech. We 
are especially pleased with the "New Parsing Key 5 ' that accom- 
panies the system, and we cheerfully recommend this work to pa- 
rents and teachers, as worthy of being placed in the hands of chil- 
dren, and of being introduced into seminaries of learning. 

MATTHEW SIMPSON. 

MATTHEW SIM PON, Jr. A. M. 

A. G. OSBUN, A. M. 

I fully concur in opinion with the numerous recommendations 
given to Robert S. Holloway's system of English Grammar: — Be- I 
ing well acquainted with the author, and knowing his private as 
well as public sentiments on the subject, and having been long 
engaged in teaching grammar, I am free to give my full approba- 
tion of the work: — believing that the arrangement and mode of 
teaching adopted therein are such as every teacher and learner 
will be pleased to avail himself of . That part of the work called 
the "Parsing Key," very especially enhances its value in mv esti- 
mation. DANIEL, WILLIAMS, 
Author of the Explanatory Reader. 

1st mo. 31st, 1833, 

From what opportunity I have had to become acquainted with 
R. S. Holloway's "System of English Grammar," I am inclined 
to encourage the adoption of it into my school. 

JOSEPH SHREVE, 
Teacher of Friend's School, Salem, Ohio. 
lstmo.3ist, 1833. 

New Athens, Harrison County, Ohio, 5th Dec, 1832. 
Having examiaed with care Mr. Robert S. Holloway's system of 
English Grammar, I feel disposed to recommend it to the public. — 
Its superiority over former publications, on the same subject, con- 

m 



6 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

sists, 1 st. In its brevity united with comprehensiveness. — 1. In the dif- 
ferent parts of speech, particularly the pronoun and adjective, being 
treated in a manner more strictly philosophic, and better adapted 
to the capacity of the eommon learner, than has been done in any 
other publication I have seen. — 3. In the "Parsing Key," and 
the arrangement of the rules and examples in False Syntax. For 
these and other excellencies of the work, I would gladly see it in- 
troduced into, public schools. 

JOHNSON WELSH, A. M. 
President of New Athens College. 

** I cheerfully concur in the above recommendation of ^Robt. S. 
Holloway's Grammar. 

GEORGE K. JENKINS, 
Professor of languages in New Athens College. 

Freeport, Nov. 14th, 1832. 
I have examined the outlines of a grammar of the English lan- 
guage by Roberts, Holloway, — and am well pleased with the gen- 
eral plan, as well as the execution of the work. As far as I can 
judge from the examination bestowed on it, it presents facilities 
to learners not to be found in any other work, with which I am ac- 
quainted. 

JOHN McBEAN,M. D. 
Formerly professor of languages in the Academy of Cadiz. 

St. Clairsville, Dec. 7th, 1832. 
From a general and careful examination of Mr. Robert S. Hoi- 
loway's English Grammar submitted to my inspection, while in 
manuscript, I take pleasure in stating, that I believe it will prove a 
very important accession to the list of Text books, prepared for the 
common Schools and Colleges of our country. It appears" admira- 
bly calculated to facilitate the progress of private learners, in ac- 
quiring a general and valuable knowledge of the English language. 
It possesses the rare merit of c©nciseness, simplicity, and perspi- 
cuity. Discarding the useless lumber of common systems, it con- 
denses and embodies ia a very happy manner, those things which 
are absolutely essential to a grammatical knowledge of the -Bug 
Jish tongue. A neat and portable grammar, free from the lumber 
of tedious fine spun distinctions, and from ambiguous rules and* 
definitions, has long been a desideratum among experienced teach- 
ers; such teachers will find that this desirable object is happily ac- 
complished by Mr. Hollo way. His exposition of the adjective anrl 
verbis peculiarly happy, and cannot fail to lighten and abringe 
the labor of the student; while the plan of the "New Parsing Key" ( 
is well adapted to impreve the judgment , and develope the reason- 
ing powers of the student. This part of the work deserves very 
high praise. ISAAC HOGE, jr. A. M. 

Corresponding Secretary of Belmont County School Society. 

Having examined, in manuscript, Robert S. Holloway's new 
system of English Grammar, I am induced to think, from a very 
cursory perusal of the work, that it is possessed of merit superior 
to any other system that I have yet had an opportunity of viewing,. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 7 

He has generalized to some extent without obscuring the subject; 
particularly in reducing to one class, the article, adjective, relative 
and adjective pronouns, the whole of which are appendages of the 
noun; yet not without appropriate rules for their particular ap- 
plication. He has likewise arranged and explained the verb, and 
its moods and tenses, more philosophically, than any other author 
who has come within my knowledge. And as the student's knowl- 
edge of the science, depends in a great measure, on his ability to 
parse or analyze sentences, the author has appended a parsing 
kev, which is well calculated to promote his knowledge, as well as 
to 'lighten the labour of the teacher. Upon the whole, I conceive 
that the work will be a valuable acquisition to our stock of school 
books. NATHAN JOHNSON, M. D. 

Belmont, January 23d, 1833. 

Ihave had handed to me for examination, a manual of English 
Grammar, written by Robert S. Holloway, and am pleased to find 
it a work of superior merit. I am decidedly of the opinion, that 
those especially who. make grammar a private study, will find it a 
treatise quite superior to any extant. S. P. HUNT. 

Teacher of Barnesville Seminary. 

St. Clairsville, May li, 1833. 
Dear Sir — I have with considerable care examined your " Easy 
and lucid guide to a knowledge of English Grammar," and am sat- 
isfied that it contains many improvements upon any system, with 
which I am acquainted. 

Your arrangement of the Rules of Syntax, together with the 
many additions thereto (more than I have ever seen in any one 
grammar of that size,) especially deserves particular commend- 
ation. 

As a whole, your work deserves much praise, and will I doubt 
not, meet»with a favorable reception by a criticising, though can- 
did public. Yours respectfully, J. R. CASE, A. B. 
Mr. R. S. Holloway. 

Marietta, April, 27th, 1833. 
Mr. Holloway — Dear Sir: Ihave examined the copy of your 
grammar, you left me, and am happy to assure you, that I am more 
pleased with your work, than with any one of the multitude of 
grammars, which have fallen under mj notice. You have followed 
more closely, than others, the philosophical principles of our lan- 
cua^e, and at the same time presented them in a manner, at once, 
clear and intelligible to the youthful learner. I am every way gra- 
tified with your "Parsing Key." In conclusion, permit me to ex- 
press the hope that you will realize all your fondest anticipations in 
regard to this work — and be fully rewarded for the time and labor 
it has cost you. D. H. ALLEN. 

Marietta Collegiate Institute. 

ft^=To the liberality of the Literati, who have kindly present- 
ed me with their flattering opinions, I tender my grateful acknowl- 
edgements. The insertion of many of these recommendations, fot 
want of room, cannot be made. 



INTRODUCTION. 

English Grammar has recently received, both in defini- 
tions and arrangement, very important improvements. Many 
distinguished and learned grammarians have lent their aid to 
its improvement. Why 7 , then, it may be queried, should we 
have another system, when our country is already, almost 
inundated with works of this kind? My answer is, that 
improvements in science and mechanism, have always been 
progressive; and, that I suppose, English Grammar has not 
arrived to the acme of perfection ; and that it is not beyond 
improvement, both in definitions and elucidations. To many 
branches of the Mathematics, we have keys for the accom- 
modation of the private learner. But in our common systems 
of English Grammar, we have no such infallible aids. If a 
private learner cannot analyze a word, or sentence, he must 
either omit it, or resort to some qualified person, who is not 
always at hand. This, undoubtedly, has been a powerful 
reason, why so many thus circumstanced, have neglected 
the study of the English language. 

An attempt is made in the present system to obviate this 
deficiency, by the introduction of what is called a Parsing 
Key. By this key, the learner will be enabled to analyze 
any of the parsing examples given in the book. Teachers 
will also find it of much utility; for, by its assistance a mo- 
nitor will be enabled to give a class, that instruction neces- 
sary from a preceptor. A specimen of correcting an example, 
under each rule in Orthography, Syntax, and Punctuation, is 
also given, which has not hitherto been done. The exam- 
ples for practice are .generally scientific, and of such a na- 
ture, that while the pupil is applying the rules of Grammar, 
he may also be acquiring other important and useful infor- 
mation. 

It will be perceived that the present work diners from most 
others, in many of its definitions. The author, in much 
deference to his predecessors, thinks he is warranted in his 
innovations. The principal use of grammar distinctions, in 
his humble opinion, is to make a foundation, upon which, to 
base rules of Syntax. Distinctions which are not useful in 
this respect, especially if not correct, should be discarded. 
And this is the principle assumed, in generalizing and con- 
densing the distinctions. A, an, and the, are classed with 
the adjectives. This, however, has been done, by many 
modern writers. If the definition of an article is correct* 



INTRODUCTION 9 

" that it limits the signification of nouns," are not that r 
these, ten, twenty, first and second articles? They surely 
limit the signification of nouns. " Articles are generally 
divided into two classes, definite and indefinite" " The is 
called the definite article." How does the used in a sen- 
tence, make its noun definite in the mind of the reader or 
hearer? Not by its independent definite meaning, but by 
some previous conversation, or by some significant sign. It 
would be absurd, to say to a person, " bring me the book," 
unless we had previously talked about a particular book, or 
had given some specific sign, indicative of the book meant. 
Hence we perceive that the owes all the definite meaning it 
has, to certaia circumstances, and not to any inherent, defi- 
nite meaning it has in itself. " A or an is called the indefi- 
nite article." " The is an article." Does an in this exam- 
ple, limit the noun to one of a kind, but to no one in parti- 
cular? If it does, there must be some other word besides 
the that is a definite article. " Howard the Good possessed 
a clear head and a philanthropic heart." The only " vague- 
ness or indefinite meaning" in this sentence, depends on 
the question, whether he possessed his own head and heart, 
or some other person's. Again, " For unto us is born, this 
day, in the city of David, a Saviour, which is Christ the 
Lord: and this shall be a sign unto you," &c. "I am a 
jealous God," &c. "There was a certain man, in Ce3area t 
called Cornelius," &c. " And the rib, which the Lord God 
had taken from the man, he made a woman," &c. u And 
a certain Jew, named Apollos, born at Alexandria," &c. 
"For Moses truly said unto the fathers, A prophet shall 
the Lord your God raise up unto you," &c. " Of this 
man's seed hath God, according to his promise, raised unto 
Israel a Saviour , Jesus." A in the foregoing examples, ig 
certainly as definite, as any .word can be. For these reasons, 
and others, which the limits of an introduction preclude 
giving, a, an, and the, are classed with the adjectives. 

Many attempts to give a scientific, comprehensive, and 
unexceptionable definition to the verb, have been made. It 
is now pretty generally agreed, that the common division of 
verbs, into active, passive, and neuter, is very exceptionable. 
In the first place, to mark a distinction between active and 
neuter, where shall we find the certain divisional line? It 
appears to me that all the distictions in Grammar, should be, 
at least, within the power of the grammarian to explain. In 
the example, 4 <He possesses Xhdit book," grammarians caliper 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

sess an active transitive verb, governing "book." This 
perhaps could be explained, so that a learner could compre- 
hend it. But in the example, " That book is mine," how 
could it be explained that is 9 more than possess, is neuter 
expressing no action ? That knife I own. That knife is 
mine. What, or where, is the language^ that can explain 
why own is an active transitive verb, and is a neuter verb ? 
If apparent action be made the line of distinction, as some 
suppose it should be, in the following examples, I have a 
book, I possess a book, I keep a book, I love a book, I re- 
tain a book, I respect a book, I discard a book, I despise 
a book, I regard a book, I esteem a book, I want a book, I 
desire a book, I hate a book, I do not use a book, &c. how 
is the apparent action made comprehensible? Perhaps some 
may object to calling all verbs active, because they suppose, 
it contradicts that principle in Philosophy called Inertia. This 
is a mistake, for it is not pretended that we cannot speak of 
things, so far in a state of quiescence, as the governing 
laws of action will admit. It is a prime law of Philosophy, 
" that every portion of matter is influenced by different active 
principles tending to produce change," which can never 
take place without producing action. It is often very peril* 
Haciously demanded, when we say the book lies on the 
floor, whether the verb lies expresses any action, I 
should answer, it is in thi act of lying 01 tha floor. This 
query often raminds m© of ena formerly mack, and the p 
losophj of it is about similar, ^ Whether thig mighty world 
could fly a thousand milep in a minute, and no on© feel the 
motion; and if it §var turned upildt dowa, why the wafer 
did not spill from the ponds, and the people fall headlong in to 
the bottomless pit. ,? If a neuter verb expresses no action, 
or conveys no distinctive idea, which it never can do, with- 
out producing either a physical, or mental action, then it 
certainly must be a nugatory something or nothing, in the 
English language, and should be altogether discarded. The 
principal use that can be claimed, even by those who classify 
verbs into active, passive, and neuter, is to direct what form 
or case of pronouns should follow verbs. And the easiest 
and most simple way, that this direction can be given, is 
fully in accordance with the principles contained in the pre* 
gent system. For example, when a noun or pronoun follows 
a verb, and is effected by that verb, it is in the objective 
case; but when it is not effected by the verb, it is in the 
nominative case, 



INTRODUCTION. H 

The manner of treating what are generally called Rela-* 
five, Interrogative, and Compound Pronouns, is so simpli- 
fied, that the learner, instead of becoming dismayed, and 
almost ready to abandon the study, on account of the abstruse 
manner in which they are treated, will go on with ease and 
admiration. The condensing of rules which are based upon 
the same principle, has also been done to a considerable ex* 
tent. This, it is believed, has the advantage of much lessen- 
ing the burden of committing, and of presenting the whole 
idea at one view. 

In collecting the materials for the work, I have aimed not 
so much at originality, as to combine the excellencies of 
many systems, into one system. And in doing thjs, I duly 
acknowledge the labors of those authors, from whose works, 
I have 'derived much assistance. Where I have taken the 
sentiments of others, so far as it answered my design, I 
have taken their language, considering it no greater pla- 
giarism, than to take their ideas, and dress them in my own 
language. It is to be expected, that a work of this kind, 
will have opposers, not only from the prejudices of educa- 
tion, but from a stronger cause, that of self-interest. It will 
also, no doubt, find a large majority disposed to investigate 
its principles, in the spirit of candor, and to give them that 
merit which they deserve. To this class, the author may re- 
mark, that though the general plan of the work has not been 
premature, yet the preparation for the press has been hastily 
accomplished, and under many disadvantages. For this 
reason, and that it is not likely a fallible being, can present 
a perfect work, (particularly in the first edition,) any sug- 
gestions for its improvement will be kindly received. 



DIRECTIONS TO PRIVATE LEARNERS, 

It will be proper to commence at the first lecture, and 
read it, as well as the succeeding, carefully over. Then me- 
morise those parts which are printed in the largest tvpe, and 
answer all the questions, except those on the Notes, which 
should also be answered, at least, in going through the se- 
cond time. In the first parsing examples, as well as in all 
, the others, you will find it essentially important to peruse, 
[and re-peruse the specimens which I have given, until the 



INTRODUCTION, 

manner of parsing is quite familiar . Do notconsider it an un- 
pleasant task to dwell on one thing, untilyou understand it. 
But let this be your motto, I am not more anxious to get through 
srammar, than I am to understand it. Always try to know 
the why, and wherefore of things. If these be your resolu- 
tions you will find yourselves in a short tune, acquainted 
with 'the constructive principles of English Grammar.— 
Should you, at any time, be at a loss to know how to ana- 
lyze a word or sentence, refer to the Parsing Key. But ne- 
ver make this resort, until you have free y exercised your 
own judgment. Teachers, of course, wi 1 let heir pupils 
have such reference to it, as they may think best calculated 
to facilitate their progress. I would suggest to teachers the 
propriety of giving their pupils each evening, a few senten- 
Sesto characterize as they are, in the "Parsing Key "'against 
morning. By this plan, the scholar's knowledge of gram- 
mar could be known, without hearing him parse a word. 



AN 

EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

To a Knowledge of EKgii§la Grammar* 

ooo 

LECTURE 1ST. OK LANGUAGE* 

THE term Language is derived from the 
French words langite, the tongue, and agir, to 
do. It means, in English, tongue-work, or that 
which is performed by the tongue. In its extend- 
ed meanings language is any system of signs, by 
which intelligent beings make their thoughts 
known to each other. 

GRAMMAR is the science of language* 

Grammar teaches us hoiv to use words in a proper man- 
ner. The most important use of that faculty, speech, is to 
convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store 
of words, and even know what they signify, they v ill be of 
no real use to us unless we can apply them to practice, and 
make them answer the purposes for which they were invent- 
ed. Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our 
words and thoughts, fully and clearly; nnd consequently, in 
a manner which will defy the ingenuity of man, to give our 
words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend 
them to express. From a want of Grammatical knowledge 
many often express themselves in a manner so improper and 
obscure as to render it impossible for any one to understand 
them; their language frequently amounting to bad sense; and 
often to nonsense. li is a study that tends to adorn and dignify 
human nature, and meliorate the condition of man in society : 
in fact, a knowledge of Grammar, is indispensibly requi- 
site, for it opens the door to every department, of learning. 

Grammar is divided into two species, universal and par-? 
ticulir. 

Universal Grammar explains the principles which are 
common to all languages. 
B 



14 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Particular Grammar explains those general principles, 
and applies them to a particular language, modifying them 
according to its genius, and the established practice of the 
best speakers and writers by whom it is used. 

The established 'practice of the best speakers and writers 
of any language, is the standard of Grammatical accuracy in 
the use of that language; 

Language in its most extensive sense implies those 
signs, by which men and brutes communicate their thoughts, 
affections and desires. 

Language is divided* first, into natural and artificial; se- 
cond, into spoken and written. 

Natural language is the use of those natural signs, which, 
different animals employ in communicating their feelings 
one to another; and is common to both man and brute. 

The elements of natural language in man are, Modulation, 
Gesture, and Feature* 

Two savages who have no common artificial language, can 
communicate their thoughts intelligibly, by means ot the 
modulation of the voice, features and gestures, they can ask 
and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and supplicate, they 
can traffic, enter into contracts and plight their faith. 

The language of brutes consists in the use of those inar- 
ticulate sounds by which they express their desires and affec- 
tions. For instance; the neighing of a horse, the bleating 
of a lamb, the growling, whining, and barking of a dog, are 
the language of these animals respectively. 

Artificial Language consists in the use of those words 
which enable men to communicate one with another. 

Words are articulate sounds used by common consent, 
not as natural but as artificial signs of our ideas. 

The notices we gain by sensation and perception, and 
which are treasured up in the mind, to be the materials of 
thinking and knowledge, ate ideas. For example, when you 
place your hand upon ice, a sensation is produced which is 
called coldness. That faculty, which notices this sensation 
or a change produced in the mind, is perception; and the ab- 
stract notice, or notion you form of this sensation is an 
idea. 

Spoken language or speech is made up of articulate sounds 
Uttered by the human voice. 

The voice is formed by air which, after it passess through 
the Glotis, is modulated by the action of the Throat, Tongue, 
Palate, Teeth, Lips and Nostrils. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 15 

The elements of written language consist of letters or 
characters, which by common consent and general usage, 
are combined into words, and thus made the ocular repre- 
sentatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the voice. 

Wokbs have no meaning in themselves; for instance, in 
English to a particular metal we give the name Gold; not 
because there is any peculiar aptness in that sound which 
suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of 
that sound, to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitra- 
ry. Other nations make use of different sounds, to signify 
the same thing. Tlrus Aurum denotes the same idea in 
Latin, and Or in French. From which we learn that it is 
by custom that particular ideas, are annexed U3 particular 
sounds. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

The English Language is principally derived from the 
Saxon, Danish, Celtic and Gothic, but in its progressive 
stages of refinement it has been greatly enriched by access 
sions from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Ital* 
ian, and German language?, 

English grammar is divided into four parts, 
viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Fros^ 
ody. 

Orthography teaches the nature and power 
of letters, and the just method of spelling words. 
It means word-making, or spelling. And it teach-* 
es us the different kinds and sounds of letters, 
how to combine them into syllables, and syllables 
into words. 

Orthography treats, 1st, of letters, 2dly of syl- 
lables, 3dly of words. 

A letter is the first principle or least part of a 
word. 

OF THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 

A. — A has four sounds; the long as in name, basin; the broad; 
as in cill, wall; the short; as in fagot, glass ; and the flat, Italian 
sound; as in bar, farther. 

The improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam, 
Canaan, Isaac ; and the long sound of a in Baal, Gaal, Aaron. 



16 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

The Latin diphthong, ae, has the long sound of e in aenigma, Ca> 
ear, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless 
excrescence of antiquity, and write, enigma, Cesar. 

The diphthong, ai, has the long sound of a ; as in pail, s ail ; ex- 
cept in plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some 
others. 

Au is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, like 
long o in hautboy, and like short oin laurel. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, crawl. 
Ay has the long sound of a ; as in pay, delay . 
B. — B has only the one sound , as in baker, number, chub. 
B is silent w 7 hen it follows m in the same syllable ; as in lamb, &c* 
except inaccumb, rhomb, and succumb. It is also silent before t 
in the same syllable ; as in doubt, debtor subtle, &c . 

C. — C sounds like k befoie a, o, u, r, 1, t, and at the end of syl- 
lables ; as in cait, cottage, curiour-, craft, tract, cloth ; victim, flac- 
cid. Jt has the sound ofs before e, i, and y ; as in centre, cigar, 
mercy. C has the sound of sh when followed by a diphthong, and 
is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary ; as in so- 
cial, pronunciation, &c. ; and of z in discern, sacrifice, sice, suf- 
fice . It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle. 
Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin; but in 
words derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound ofk; 
as in chymist, chorus; and likewise in foreignnames; as in Achish, 
Enoch. In words from the French, ch sounds like sh ; as in chaise, 
chevalier; and also like sh when preceded by 1 or n ; as in milchj 
bench, clinch, &c« 

Ch in ar^h, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in arch-angel, ex- 
cept in arched, archery, archer, archenemy; but brfore a conso- 
nant, it sounds like ish ; as in archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule, 
schism, yacht, drachm. 

D. — D has one uniform sound ; as in death, and bandage. It 
sounds like dj or j when followed by long 11 precede d by the arcent ; 
as in educate, verdure. It also sounds like j in grandeur, soldier. 

The termination, ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, re- 
tains its distinct sounds; as a wicked man, a learn-ed man, bless- 
ed are the meek; but in verbs the e is generally dropped ; as pass- 
ed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled, &c. which are pronounced, 
past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold. 

E. — Ehas a long sound ; as in scheme, severe ; a short sound ; as 
in men, tent; and sometimes the sound of flat a ; as in sergeant; 
and of short i ; as in ye?, pretty, England, and generally in tlie 
unaccented terminations, es, et, en, 

F. — .Fhas one unvaried sound ; as in fancy, muffin ; except in of, 
which, when uncompounded, is pronounced ov. A wive's portion, 
a calve's head, are improper. They should be, wife's portion, 
calf's head. 

G. — G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, 1, and r, and 
at the end of a word ; as in gay, 2:0, gun, glory ; bag, snnjr. It is 
soft before e, i, and y ; as in genius, ginsrer, Esrypt. Exceptions { 
get, gewgaw, gimlet, and some others. G is silent before n ; as in 
gnash. 

H. — H has an aHicu'ate sound; as in hat, horse, hull. It \% 
silent after r; as in rhetoric, rhubarb. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

I. — /has a long sound; as in fine; and a short one: as in fin. 
Before r it is often used like u short; as in first third ; and in oth* 
er words, like short e ; as in birth, virtue. In some words it has 
the sound of long e ; as in machine, profile. 

J. — J has the sound of soft g; except in hallelujah, in which it 
is pronounced like y . 

K. — K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i, and y, 
where e would be soft ; as kept, skirt, murky. It is silent before n ; 
as in knife, knell, knocker. 

L. — L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow. It is 
often silent; as in half, talk,, almond. 

M. — M has always the same sound ; as in murmur, monumental. 

N. — ./Vhas two sounds; the one pure; asin man, net, noble; the 
other a compound sound; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c. pro- 
nounced ankl, bangkwet. N final is silent when preceded by m; 
as in hymn, autumn. 

O. — O has a long sound; as in note, over; and a short one; as in 
not, got. It has thesound ofushort; asin son, attorney, doth,, 
does; and generally in the terminations, op, ot, or, on, om,ol, &c. 

P. — Phas but one uniform sound; as in pin, slipper; except in 
cupboard, clapboard, where it has the sou d of b. It is mute in 
psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, emptv, corps, raspberry, and receipt. 

Ph has the sound of fin philosophy, Philip; and ofv in nephew, 
Stephen. 

Q. — Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronoun- 
ced like w; as in quadrant, queen, conquest. 

R — ft has thermion sound , asin Rome, river, rasre; and asmootb 
one; as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented termination re* 
the r is sounded after thee; asin fibre centre. 

S. — 5 has a flat sound like z; as in besom, nasal; and, at the 
beginning of words, a sharp hissing sound ; as in s *int, sifter, sam- 
ple. It has the sound of sh when preceded by the accent and anoth- 
er s or a liquid, and followed b\ r a diphthong or lone* u ; asin expul- 
sion, censure. S sounds like zh when nreeeHed by the accent and 
a vowel, and followed by a dmhthons; or lon» n ; as in brasier, usu- 
al. It is mute in isle, corns, demesne, viscount. 

T. — Tis sounded in tM^^emner T before u, when the ac- 
cent precedes, and generally before eou, sounds like tsh : as nature, 
virtue, righteous, are pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti 
before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of sh ; asin 
salvation, negotiation : excent in sn^h words as tierce, tiara, &c. 
and unless an s eroes before: a<=, question; and excepting also de- 
rivatives from words endinsr in tv ; as in mighty, mightier. 

Th at the beginning, middle and end of words; as in thick, 
panther, breath. Exceptions; then, booth, worthy, &o. 

U . — U has three sounds; a Ions:; as in mule, cubic ; a short ; asin 
dull, custard; and an obtuse«ound ; a* in full, bushel. It is pronoun- 
ced like shorte in bury: and like 'hort i in busy, business. 
V. — F~h:\s uniformly the sound of flat f; asin vanity, love. 

W . — W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in wo, 
beware. 

W is silent before r; as in wry, wrap, wrinkle; and also in an- 
swer, sword, &c. Before h it is pronounced as if written after the 

a2 



IS AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

b; as in why, when what; — hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a 
vowel, it takes the sound of 11; as in draw, crew, now. 

X. — X has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable with 
the accent on it; as exit, exercise; or when it precedes an accent- 
ed syllable which begins with any consonant except h; as, excuse, 
extent; but when the following accented syllable begins with a 
vowel or h, it has generally, a flat sound, like gz, as in exert, ex- 
hort. X has the sound of z at the beginning of proper names of 
Greek original; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

Y. — y, when a con-onant, has its proper sound; as in youth, 
York, ye?, new-year. When y is employed as a vowel, it has 
exactly the same sound thati would have in the same situation; as 
in rhyme, system, part}, pyramid. 

Z.—Z has the sound of flat s; as freeze, brazen. 

There are in the English Alphabet Twenty-six letters, 
which are divided into vowels and consonan's. 

A vowel is an articulate sound that can be perfectly ut- 
tered by itself: as a, e, i, o, v, which are formed without 
the help of any other sound. 

A consonant is an articulate sound which cannot be per- 
fectly littered without the help of a vowel; as &, d,f ?, 
which require vowels to express them fully. 

The voiccls are «, e, ?*, o, «, and sometimes w and ?/. w 
and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, 
but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Although ?/.', is generally in every situation except when it be- 
gins a word called a vowel; I strongly doubt its being a vowel, be- 
cause it will not sound with any of the consonants like the other 
vowel? . 

A mute cannot be sounded at all without the aid ofa vowel. 
They are fe, p, t, d, k, and c, anfar hard. 

The simivowels have an imnvct sound of themselves. 

They are j n /, w, w, r, u, s, z,l^nd c, and g soft. 

Four of the semivowels, Z, wz, n, r, from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into 
their sounds are called liquid?. 

A diphthong is the un : on of two vowels, pronounced, by a 
single impulse of the voice; as ea in beat, on in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels pronounced in 
like manner: as eau in beau, ieu in vien\ 

A proper diphthong \s that in which both the vowels are 
sound d * oi in voice ou in ounce. 

An iffipn 'per diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : 
as ea in eagle, oa in hotit. 

In order to become a proficient in any art or science, the first 
rudiments must be clearly comprehended, then it becomes easy. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

The sentiments of Quintilian, in this respect, I wish you par- 
ticularly to remember. "Let no person," says he, "despise as in- 
considerable, the elements of Grammar, because it may seem to 
him a matter of snail importance to show the distinction between 
vowels and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and 
mutes. But they, who penetrate into the innermost parts of this 
temple of science, will there discover such refinement and subtilty 
of matter, as are not only proper to sharpen the understandings of 
young people, but sufficient to give exercise for the most profound 
knowledge and erudition.'" The (dements of language, according 
to the di tie rent seats where they are formed, ar^ classed as follows : 
those are called labials, which are formed by the lips; those dentals, 
that are formed by the teeth ; palatals that are formed with the pal- 
ate ; nasals, that are formed by the nose. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pro- 
nounc *d by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a 
word, or pin of a word : as a, an, ant. 

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word 
by its proper letters, and of dividing it into syl- 
lables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to the 
latter syllable: as, de-Zight, re source; except the letter x, as, ex- 
ist, examine,- and except al«o words compounded : as, u/>-on, un- 
even, d is ease,. 

2d. Two consonants proper to besrin a word, mu-t not be sepa- 
rated; as fa-';/e,sti^e. Bat when they c >me between two vowels, 
and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided : as up- 
most, ui-ier. i-i-sert, e**-ror, co/Jin. 

3d When three consonants me< tit) the middle of a word, if they 
can begin a wor I, and the preceding vowel be pronounced Ion<r,they 
are not to be separated : as, de-Mrone, destroy. But, when the 
vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the con- 
sonants, always, belongs to the last sy liable : as, distract, dis- 
prove, di.r-frain. 

4th. When three or four consonant-, which are not proper to be- 
gin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can be- 
gin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former syllable; 
as, ab-stain, com-pletion, em-broil, trans-eress, &c, 

5th. Two vowels, not bein^ a dinhthonsr, must he divided into 
separate syllables: a=, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 

6th. Compound words must be triced into the simple words 
of which they are composed : as, ice-house, »low-worm, over-pow- 
er, nev-er-the-les«. 

7th. Grammatici', and other particular terminations, are erene- 
rally sopnrated; ns teach-est, teach-eth, teach-in?-, teach-er, 
contend est, great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, freedom, false-hood. 

OF WORDS. 

Words are artxulate sounds, used by common consent, 
assigns ofouride. s. 



20 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Words of one syllable are called monosyllables. 

Words of two syllables are called dissyllables. 

Words of three syllables are called trisyllables. 

Words of four or more syllables are called polly syllables. 

Words are divided into primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is one which cannot be reduced to a 
simpler word in the language : as man, good, content. 

A derivative word, is that which, may be reduced to ano- 
ther word in English of greater simplicity: as manfal, good- 
ness, contentment, Yorkshire. 

A compound word is included under the head of derivative words : 
as, pen-knife, tea-cup, looking-glass; which may be reduced to 
other words of greater simplicity. 

A Remark. There are many English words which, though 
compounds in other languages, are to us primitives. Ttius, circum- 
spect, circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &.c. 
are primitive words in English; but will be found derivatives, 
when traced into the Latin tongue. 

The orthography of the English language, is attended with much 
uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this in- 
convenience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of 
formation: and for this end you are presented with a view of such 
general maxims, in spelling primitive and derivative words, as have 
been almost universally received. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Rule 1st. — Monosyllables ending inf, I, or s, double the 
final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a single 
vowel; as staff, mill, pass. Exceptions; of, if, as, is, has, 
was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

FALSE ORTHOGRAPHY TO CORRECT. 

The gras grows. 

I will give you a form for correcting this sentence, that will 
aid you in all the rest, under this Rule. 

Incorrect, because the monosyllable grass ends in single s, preced- 
ed by a single vowel. But, agreeably to Rule 1st, a monosyllable 
ending in f, l,ors, must double the ending consonant, when it is 
preceded by a single vowels. Therefore it should be spelled 
with ss, thus, Grass. 

EXAMPLES. 

The staf is long. Shal Igo. It is no great merit to spel 
properly: but a great defect to do it incorrectly. We may 
place too much stres upon learning. Our manners should be 
neither too gros nor exceedingly refined. 

Rule 2d. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

f, I, or s, never double the final consonant when it is preceded 
by asmgle vowel: as man, hat. Exceptions; add, ebb, butt, 
egg, odd, trr, inn, bnnn, pvrr, buzz. 

False. — A carr s : gnifies a chariot of war. 

Incorrect, because the monosyllable car ends in double rr, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel; which never doubles the final consonant, 
excepting add, ebb, egg, &c . Therefore car should be spelled with 
single r. Thus, Car. 

EXAMPLES. 

In the names of druggs and plants, a small mistake may 
endanger life. 

Nor undelightful is ihe ceaseless humm, 
To him who muses through the woods at noon. 
The linn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body. 
Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the .feet of youth. 
The weary sun has made a golden sett, 
And by the bright track of his golden carr, 
Gives token of agcodly To-morrow. 
Rule 3d. — Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns, the 
persons of verbs, participial nouns, pis* participles compara- 
tives and super! itiv< s, by changing y in'o i when the y is pre- 
ceded by a consonant: as spy, spies ;I carry, thou carriest 9 
he carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, that ? may not 
be doubl d: ascarry, carrying, tarry, tarrying, bury, buryingj 
&c. Bit! y preceded by a vowel, in s:ieh instances as the 
above, is not (/hanged: ^s boy, hoys, toy, toys; I cloy, he cloys, 
cloyed, &x.; except inlay, piy, and say; from which are 
formed, 1 '.id, p iid, nnd said; and their compounds, unlaid, 
unpaid, unsai \, &c. 

False. — Faneys should be governed by reason. 

Incorrect, because y in fancies is preceded by a consonant; but 
agreeably to Rule 3d, which says, Sic . Therefore spell thus, Fan« 
ties. 

EXAMPLES. 

If thou art seeking fo:* the living among the dead thou 
wear yesr thyself. 

We sh 11 not he the happyer for talents and afflnence 
unless we make a right use of ihem. 

The truly good m : ; id is not digmaied by poverty, afflictions, 
or the approach of death. 

Win straitng souls with modesty and love. 

Incorrect, because the present participle straying ends in ing % 



22 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

and the y is improperly changed into i. But agreeably to Rule 3d 
the present participle in ing retains the y, therefore spell thus, 
6traying. 

EXAMPLES. 

By delaiing to study in due season many remain unin- 
formed. 

By conveiing proper instructions to youth, their susceptive 
minds are enlarged and improved. 

Rule 4th.-— When words ending in #, assume an addi- 
tional syllable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is pre- 
ceded by a consonant is commonly changed into i as happy, 
happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it 
is very rarely changed into i, as boy, boyless, boyhood; joy, 
joyless, joyful. 

EXAMPLES. 

Fancy ful humors do not govern the wise. 

Incorrect, because fancy has assumed an additional syllable, and 
the y is preceded by a single consonant; But agreeably to Rule 4th 
&c. (here repeat the Rule.) Therefore, spell thus, fanciful. 

The tree is heavyly loaded with fruit. 

Modesty and frankness are the comlyness of youth. 

Intemperance is a human desfroier. 

Christiana was a mayden of heroic mein. 

Some snakes are vile decoiers. 

Rule 5th. — Monosyllables or words accented on the last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant which is preceded 
by a single vowel, double that consonant when they assume 
another syllable which begins with a vowel: as wit, witty, 
thin, thinni$h,to abet, an abettor. But if a diphthong pre- 
cedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the conso- 
nant remains single: as, to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; 
maid, maiden. 

EXAMPLES. 

The study of Grammar should not be defered too late. 

Incorrect, because deferred is accented on the last syllable end- 
ing with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel. But, 
agreeably to Rule 5th, which says, &c. Therefore spell thus, de- 
ferred. 

By defering the study of Grammar too late we incur many 
disadvantages. 

We all have many failings and lapses of time to lament 
and recover. 

The Law is annuled, 

Behold the glitterring stars after twilight ! 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAtt. 23 

To be prohibited that which our natural wills desire is 
sometimes proper. 

It is thnnderrtnga 

The shudderring man shrieks with alarm occasioned by 
himself. 

The pupils of a certain ancient Philosopher were not, 
during the first years of their study, permited to ask any 
questions. 

Rule 6th. — Words ending in double Z, and taking ness, 
less, ly, or ful, after them generally, omit one Z, as fulness, 
skilless, fully, skilful. 

But words ending in any double letter* except Z, and ta- 
king ness, less, ly, or ful, after them preserve the latter 
double, as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, suc- 
cessful. 

Restlesness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment 
of peace, and the performance of duty. 

Incorrect, because restless is spelled with single s and takes less 
after it: But agreeably to Rule Cth, those words which end in 
any double letter but /, and taking ness, less, )y, or ful, after them, 
generally omit one /. Therefore spell thus, Restlessness. 

EXAMPLES. 

The silent stranger stood amazed to see 
Contempt of wealth, and willful poverty* 
The road to blisfulness is open to all. 
A dullness generally precedes fever* 
The little lamb skips harmlesly on the green grass. 
Rule 7th — Ness, less, ly, -and ful, added to words ending 
with silent c, do not cut it off, as paleness, guileless, closely, 
peaceful, except in a few words : as duly, truly, awful. 

Sedatness becomes christians. 

Incorrect, because ness is added to a word properly ending in si- 
lent e, improperly cut off: But, agreeably to Rule 7th, ness, less* 
ly, and ful, added to silent e,does not cut it off. Therefore spell 
thus, sedateness. 

EXAMPLES. 

Rude behaviour is peculiarly disgracful to youth of edu- 
cation. 

The true w T orship of God is an important and awe ful ser- 
vice. 

Wisdom alone is truely fair: folly only appears so. 

All these with ceasless praise his works behold, both day 
and night. 



24 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Rule 8th. — When words ending in silent, e terminate in 
merit, the e slioultl not be cut off: as abatement, chastise- 
ment. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, 
are exceptions lo this rule. Ment like other terminations 
changes //, into/, whan 'he y, is precede I by a consona nt: as 
accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment. 

The study of the English language is making daily ad- 
vancmenf. 

Incorrect, because mentis added to a word which has the silent 
e improperly cut off. But agreeably to Rule, 8th which says, &c. 
Therefore spell thus, advancement. 

EXAMPLES. 

A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improve- 
ment. 

To shun allurments is not hard 

To minds resolved, fore-warned and well prepared. 

Rule 9th. — Able and ible when incorporated into words 
ending with silent e, almost always cut it off: as blame, bltm- 
able; cure, curable; sense, sensible. But if c or g soft 
comes before e in the original word, the e is preserved in 
words compounded with able: as peace, peaceable; change, 
changeable. 

The knowledge of Grammar is desirable. 

Incorrect, because able is incorporated into a word ending with 
silent e, and the e not cut off: Bnt agreeably to Rule 9th, which 
eays, &c. Therefore spell thus, Desirable. 

EXAMPLES. 

Misconduct is inexcuseable. 

Our natural defects are not ehargable upon us. 

We are made to be servicable to others as well as ourselves. 

Rule 10th. — When ing or ish is added to words ending in 
silent e, the e is almost, always omitted: as place, placing, 
lace, lacing, dodge, dodging, prude, prudish. 

Adroneish spirit should be overcome. 

Incorrect, because ish is added to a word ending with silent e, 
not cut off; But agreeably to Rule 10th, which says, &c . There- 
fore spell thus, dronish. 

EXAMPLES. 

An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected 

with a servile and cringeing humor. 

By solaceing the sorrows of the virtuous poor the heart is 
improved. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2& 

linaveish airs should have severe reproof. 

One self-approveinghour whole years outweighs, 
Of stupid starers and of loud huzzas. 
Rule 11th.-— Compound words, are generally spelled in 
the same manner, as the simple words are, of which the coirr- 
^pound is formed: as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter 
Many words ending in double I are exceptions to this rule : 
as already, welfare, wilful; and also the words wherever^ 
^Christmas, Lammas, &c. 

FALSE ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The Jews' passover was instituted in A. M. 2513. They 
salute one another by touching their forheads. 

A virtuous woman looks wei to her household. 

That which is sotntimes expedient is not always so. 

In candid minds, truth finds an entrance and a wellcome 
too. 

By our improper example we may be hurtfull to others. 

Note. — For forms to correct the foregoing examples, I refer yon 
for the first example to Rule 1st. &c. &c. The orthography of 
words is far from being uniform in the spelling of many words, even 
among writers of eminent distinction. The best guide,after prop*- 
erly understanding the rules for spelling, is this very general one- 
consult an approved dictionary. 

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED. 5 * 

13 jFrom what terms is language derived? 13 What 
does language mean? 13 What is grammar? 13 Into how 
many species is grammar divided? 13 What does universal 
grammar explain? 14 What is the standard of grammatical 
accuracy? 14 What does language in its most extensive 
sense imply? 14 What is natural language? 14 What are 
the elements of natural language in man? 14 In what does 
the language of brutes consist? 14 In what does artificial 
language consist? 14 What are words? 14 What is an 
idea? 14 How is the voice formed? 15 Have words any 
'meaning in themselves? 15 What is English Grammar? 
15 From what is the English language principally derived? 
15 Into how many parts is English Grammar divided? 
15 What is orthography? 19 What is spelling? 



*These questions are no$ designed to be thoroughly answered 
the first time going through— the questions on the letters may 
also be asked. 

fThe figures immediately preceding the questions, l-efer to tb$ 
page on which the answer to the question may be found. 

c 



26 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

LECTURE 2d, ON ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* 

It belongs to this part of Grammar to show 
what each word means ; to what part of speech 
it belongs ; and what changes it may admit, while 
it is considered the same word. 

Syntax treats of the agreement and govern- 
ment of words, and their proper arrangement in 
a sentence. 

Note. — Syn, a Greek prefix, signifying together. 

The word Etymology signifies the origin and pedigree of 
words. And a thorough knowledge of it would be to un- 
derstand the languages from which all our words are derived ; 
— but the object of the present manual is to explain the pro- 
perties, powers, connexions, relations, dependances, and bear- 
ings of words, according to the true classification and analogy 
of them. 

1st. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 

2d. Etymology explains the peculiar changes or different 
parts of speech a word assumes, agreeably to its situation and 
meaning in a sentence. It also shows the changes produced 
on the ending of words, in consequence of their assuming dif- 
ferent relations in respect to one another. 

3d. Etymology shows how one word comes from or groirs 
out of another. Example I from the w r ord write, come the 
words, writest, writes* writeth, writing, write, written, writer's 
and writers, &x. 

The true principle of classifying words is the manlier and 
meaning in which they are employed. 

We ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs by 
its manner of meaning, or the office which it performs in a 
sentence. 

By its manner of meaning is meant the various ways in 
which a word is applied to the idea which it represents. 
Thus: the painter dips his paint brush into the paint, to paint 
the house. Here the word paint, is first used to name the 
brush which the painter employs; in this situation it is, there- 
fore, an adjective; secondly, to name the mixture; for 
which reason it is a noun; and thirdly, to express the action 
performed; therefore it is a verb; and yet the meaning of the 
word is the same in all these applications. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

The number of words in the English language, after de* 
ducting proper names, and words formed by the inflections 
of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about 
forty thousand, And these forty thousand words are all di- 
vided into rvi?^E classes or sorts, called parts of speech; and 
every word used in English sentences comes under one of 
these classes, agreeably to its meaning and the office it per- 
forms. Thus all you have to do, in becoming a Grammarian, 
is merely to become acquainted with these nine parts of 
speech, and the rules that apply to them in parsing, and in 
correcting false syntax. 

There are nine sorts of words, called parts of 
speech ; namely, the Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Parti- 
ciple, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunc- 
tion, and Interjection. 

A Remark. — The principal use of words is to name things, com- 
pare them with each other, and express their actions. Nouns 
which are the names of entities or things, adjectives which denote 
the comparisons and relations of things, are the only classes of 
words necessarily recognized in a Philosophical Grammar. But 
in a treatise which consults mainly practical utility, itisbeheved 
no classification is better adapted than the foregoing, which di- 
vides words into nine sorts. 

A NOUN* is the name of any person or thing ; 
as, man, London, Grammar. 

The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen^ 
which signifies a name. The name of any thing,f whether ani- 
mate or inanimate, that we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, 
or think of, is a noun. Example: animal, bird, creature, 
book, house, bread, fruit, trees, pen, ink, rule, pencil, modes- 
ty, vice, virtue, courage, and friendship, are all nouns. 

A sign by which you may easily distinguish this part of 
speech from others, is, any word that will make sense with 

*Nouns are sometimes improperly called substantives, A sub- 
stantive is the name of a substance only; but a noun is the name 
either of a substantive or quality ; as house, field, goodness, sobriety. 

tThe word thing is almost unlimited in its meaning. It is ap- 
plied with propriety, to every animal and creature in the universe^ 
except to the human species. By the term creature is meant that 
which has been created, as, dog, water, dirt. The word thing is 
frequently applied to actions; as, u to get drunk is a beastly thing." 
In this phrase it signifies neither animal nor creature; but it denotes 
jaerely an action, therefore, this action is the thing, 



%$ AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

the before it, is a noun. Try the following words by thi& 
sign, and see if they are norns : Grammar, mind, conscience^, 
soul, idea. The grammar, the mind, the conscience, the 
soul,, the idea. Thus you find they will all make sense with 
the prefixed, therefore, you know they are nouns.. There 
are, however, exceptions, to this rule; for some nouns will not 
make sense with the prefixed. These may be distinguished 
by their making sense of themselves ; as goodness, sobriety,, 
hope, immortality. 

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or 
absence of things, as well as their reality ; as 
nothing, nought, vacancy, non-existence, invis- 
ibility. 

L want you to remember,, that nouns, are sometimes used ag verbs* 
and verbs, as nouns;., and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and adjectives, as nouns. This will be explained inffuture pages of 
the woik, when you will be better prepared to comprehend it. 

Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper., 
A common noun is the name of a sort or spe- 
cies of things ; as, man, tree, river. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual, or 
of a particular person, place, or thing ; as, Samuel^ 
London, Ohio. 

A noun signifying many, or which includes a number of particu- 
lars, is, by some, called a collective noun, or noun of multitude, a& 
the meeting, thecomrnittee, the army. When it conveys plurali- 
ty of idea, it must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with 
it in the plural; but when it conveys unity of idea, it must hare 
verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with it in the singular. 

The difference between a common and a proper noun is 
very obvious; for example: man is a common noun, because 
it is a name applied to all that species; but Samuel is a 
proper noun, because it is the name of an individual or par- 
ticular man: although many men may have the same name, 
yet it is not given to all men. Hence you know it is not a 
common noun, but a proper noun. Ohio is a proper noun, 
because it is the name of an individual river: but river is a 
common noun, because it is the name of a species of things, 
and the name is common to all rivers. 

Nouns which denote the species, genus, or variety of 
things, are always common; as,/reethe genus, oak, ash, ches- 
Wtfcgum^differeni species, andred oak^ black oak,, while $a»5^ 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

are varieties of the same species. The word Earth, when it 
signifies a kind or quality of dirt, is a common noun: but 
when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. 
The words, woman, person, mountain, hill and dale &c. are 
common nouns, because they are the names of whole spe- 
cies, or classes of things containing many sorts; but the 
names of particular persons, places, rivers, mountains, and 
lakes, &c. are all proper nouns, because they denote indi- 
viduals ; as, Thomas, Philadelphia, Mount Calvary, Allegheny. 
Preacher, schoolmaster, silversmith, and tailor are com- 
mon nouns, because these names are common to classes of 
men. God or Lord, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, 
are proper; but when these terms are used to denote heathen 
or false gods, or temporal lords, they are common. 

NOTES. When proper names have the annexed to them, they 
are used as common; as, He is the Cicero of the age; He is reading 
the lives of the twelve Cesars . 

When defining: adjectives are prefixed to common nouns, they 
are used to signify individuals ; as that book is mine; thi« book is 
his. 

Common nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following 
classes: Nouns of multitude; as, the people, the parliament. Ver- 
bal or participial nouns; as, the beginning, reading, writing, cy- 
phering. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities abstracted from 
their substances, as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. And as abstract 
nouns and adjectives both denote qualities; a little farther illustra- 
tion may be necessary to assist the judgment of the student. An 
abstract noun denotes a quality, that ^abstracted or separated from 
the substance or being to which it belongs : for instance, whiteness 
and coldness are distinct objects of thought, and are abstract nouns. 
But an adjective denotes a quality joined or added to the substance 
or being to which it belongs. Thus we use the words, white and 
cold, always in reference to some noun expressed or understood; 
m, white men, cold hands. 

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and 
case. 

Gender is the distinction of sex. Nouns have 
two genders, masculine and feminine. 

The masculine gender denotes males ; as, a 
man, a boy. 

The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a 
woman, a girl. 

All animate nouns are of the masculine or feminine gender. 
For this reason, if gender is the distinction of sex, we know 
that book, house, and mountain, have no gender, for there is n* 
motion of sex, in any of these nouna. 



so 



AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 



To nouns that are neither male nor female 
the technical term neuter, may be applied. 

NOTES. — 1st. The same noun is sometimes masculine and fem- 
inine, and sometimes masculine er feminine. The noun parents 
is of the masculine and feminine gender. The nouns parent, asso- 
ciate, neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c. if doubtful^ 
you may parse either as masculine or feminine. 

2d. "Nouns with variable terminations, that is, those that de- 
note their gender by a termination of spelling, contribute to con- 
ciseness and perspicuity of expression . We have only a sufficient 
number of them to make us feel our want; for when we say of a 
woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver^ 
we perceive an impropriety in the termination, which we cannot 
avoid; but we can say she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a 
scholar, an orphan, a companion; because these terminations have 
not annexed to them the notion of sex." 

A Remark. Although this distinction in relation to the sexes 
is generally made; I confess, I do not see the propriety of calling 
a woman a botanist, or scholar, and saying she cannot be called an 
astronomer, or weaver: I should think any person understanding 
these branches, is entitled to the appellation without reference to< 
sex. 

Some nouns, naturally of no sex, are, by a figure of speech call- 
ed personification, converted into the masculine or feminine gen- 
der. Sun, time, death, sleep, are masculine. Earth, moon, boat, 
vessel, city, church, country t . nature, gun, watch, fortune, soul t 
ship, fiiddle, and virtue and Vice, with their different species, are 
feminine. Yet it only applies in parsing, so far as to govern the 
pronoun used to represent any one of these nouns. In parsing, you 
may call these nouns, what they strictly are, neuter; but when you 
use a pronoun to represent them, you put it in the masculine or 
feminine gender,, agreeably to the foregoing license. And the poet, 
in some instances, after all our rules, applies the sex according to. 
his own fancy. 

The masculine and feminine gender are distinguished in thre$>. 
ways. 1st. By different words ; a3, 

Maswline, Feminine, Masculine, 

Bachelor Maid husband 

King 
Lad 
lord 
Man 
master 
milter 
Nephew 
Ram 
Singer 
sloven 
son 
stag 
Uncle 
Sir 



boar 


sow 


boy 


gir\ 


brother 


sister 


buck 


doe 


bull 


cow 


Cock 


hen 


Dog 


bitch 


drake 


duck 


Earl 


countess 


Father 


mother 


friar 


nun 


Gander 


goose 


Hart 


roe 


horse 


mare 



Feminine. 
wife 
queen 
lass 
lady 
woman 
mistress 
spawner- 
niece 
ewe 
songstress, orsing@» 
slut 

daughter 
hind 
aunt 
mad a oi; 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 3f 



2d. By cliffe 


srence in terminal 


:ion; as, 






Abbot 


Abbess 


cater 




cateress 


actor 


actress 


chanter 




chantress 


administrator 


administratrix 


conductor 




conductress 


adulterer 


adulteress 


count 




countess 


ambassador 


ambassadress 


czar 




czarina 


arbiter 


arbitress 


deacon 




deaconess 


author 


authoress 


detractor 




detractress 


benefactor 


benefactress 


director 




directress 


bridegroom 


bride 


duke 




dutchess 


canon 


canoness 


elector 




electsess 


3d. By prefixing other words 5 


as, 






A cock 


sparrow 


a hen 


sparrow 


a man s 


servant 


a ma] 


id servant 


a he go< 


it 


a she 


goat 




a he be 


ar 


a she 


bear 




a male 


child 


a fem 


ale c 


hild 


male descendants 


female des 


cendants 



PERSON. 

Person is the property of a noun or pronoun^ 
which denotes the person speaking, the person 
spoken to, or the person spoken of; it also varies- 
the verb in the second and third person singular.. 

The first person denotes the speaker, as I, we* 

The second person denotes the person or thing 
spoken to; as, Study Chemistry, Mary — tlwu 
child. 

The third person is the person or thing spoken 
of; as, Mary learns Grammar: he, she. 

A few more illustrations of nouns will serve, by exercising 
a little reflection, to aid you how to ascertain, always the per- 
son of nouns. Nouns have but two persons, the second and 
third. Nouns are always* of the third person, except when- 
an address is made to some person or thing.. Nouns are nev- 
er of the first person; because whenever a person speaks, the 
pronoun I or we is always used; yet some Philologists sup- 
pose the noun to be of the first person in sentences like the 
following; — I William Paymaster, give and grant, &c: This 
is to certify; that, I, Jefferson, make, ordain, and adopt, &e. 
But it is evident even in these sentences, that when the speak- 
er introduces his own name,he speaks of himself, consequent- 
ly, the noun is of the third person. When we speak to, or 
address a person or thing, we know agreeably to the definU 



32 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

tion of persons, that the person or thing is of the second per- 
son. And a noun of the second person when the sentence is 
in its declarative form, is generally separated by a comma, or 
some other pause from the rest of the sentence; as, Samuel, 
the book lies on the table. — Now it is clear that Samuel is of 
the second person, because I speak to Samuel, and? Samuel is 
also separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; 
but hook and table are of the third person, because they are 
spoken of. And again, girls, study your lessons. In this 
example, girls is a noun of the second person, and lessons of 
the third person. — And if I say my friend, dost thou know that 
man? you perceive that friend is of the second person, be- 
cause he is spoken to, and man is of the third person, because 
he is spoken of: — But if I say, man, <Jost thou know my 
friend? man is of the second person, and friend is of the third 
person. 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or 
more. Nouns have two numbers, singular and 
plural. 

When a noun represents one person or thing, 
it is singular ; as man, book. 

When a noun represents more than one per- 
son or thing, it is plural ; as men, books. 

As a noun is the name of one thing, consequently, when it 
represents one name, it is singular, without reference to the 
particulars it takes to constitute that name; as society, com- 
mittee, Parliament. 

But when a noun represents a combination of names, it is 
plural ; as societies, committees, Parliaments. 

This will avoid the perplexing difficulty of telling when a 
noun conveys unity and plurality of idea, and the consequent 
uncertainty of the number of the verb. 

The number of objects is generally, very easily known ; yet, 
the following notes should be read carefully. 

Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, gold, sloth, 
pride, modesty, meekness, honesty, compassion, hemp, flax, barley, 
&c. ; these are used only in the singular form, because they have 
no plural. 

Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, 
hiatus, apparatus, series, species : and are used only in the plural 
form, because they have no singular , 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s, to 
the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces. 

When the singular noun ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s; the plural 
is formed by adding es to the singular; as, box, boxes; churchy 
churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; cargo, cargoes. But if the 
singular ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s, to the 
singular; as, monarch, monarchs; distich, distichs. 

Nouns ending in f, or fe, change those terminations into ves, to 
form the plural; as, half, halves ; wife, wives; except relief, grief,, 
reproof, and several others, which form their plural by adding s. 

Those ending in ff, have the regular plural ; as, ruff, ruffs ; stuff, 
stuffs; the exceptions are, staff, staves. — It appears to me that 
«taffs,is the plural of staff, a stick to walk with, and staves, the plu- 
ral of stave, of which barrels are made. 

Nouns ending in y, with no other vowel in the same syllable, 
change the y into ies to form the plural; as, beauty, beauties; fly, 
flies. But when there is another vowel in the same syllable, the 
y is not changed to form the plural; as, key, keys; delay, delays; 
attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys. 

Mathematicks, metaphysicks, politicks, ethicks, pneumaticks, 
hydraulicks, &c. are used either as singular or plural nouns. 

News, measles, odds, and gallows, are always singular; means, 
alms, and amends, though plural in form, may be either singular 
or plural in signification. As the noun means, is employed either 
as singular or plural : some rule to assist the student to ascertain 
when it should be called singular, or plural, in parsing, seems re- 
quisite : and I offer him the following. To employ means as singu- 
lar, when the mediation or instrumentality of one thing is implied ; 
and as plural, when two or more mediating causes are implied ; as,. 
William is careful to observe what means are employed by his 
teacher, in teaching him his studies. Here means is properly join- 
ed with a plural verb ; several methods of teaching, being necessa- 
rily signified, to teach him studies. But in the sentence: William 
has gone home ; and by this means, the teacher can teach him no 
more ; there is only one mediating circumstance implied, which is 
that of going home; therefore, means, in this sentence, is a singular 
noun. Some words derived from the learned languages are "con- 
fined to the plural : as, antipodes, credenda, literati, &c. Bandit is 
now generally used as the plural of banditti. 

The following nouns form their plural not according to any gen- 
eral rule; as, man, men; woman, women ; child, children; ox, oxen; 
tooth, teeth ; c;oose, geese ; foot, feet? mouse, mice; brother, bro- 
thers or brethren; cow, cows or kine ; penny, pence or pennies, 
when the coin is meant; die, dice for plays; dies for coining; pea 
and fi 3 b, peas and fish when the species is meant; but peas and fish-* 
es when we mean number; as, six peas, ten fishes. 

The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, 
handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls, spoonful, spoonfuls; brother-in-law, bro- 
thers-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial. 

It is a general rule, that the names of all things measured or 
weighed, have no plural ; for in them not number, but quantity, is 
regarded ; as, woo), wine, oil . When we speak of different .kisufc,. 
we use the plural ; as, the coarser wools ; the finer oils. 



34 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

CASE. 

Case represents the different state, situation or 
position of a noun, or pronoun, in relation toother 
words. 

Nouns have three cases ; the nominative, pos- 
sessive, and objective. 

The particular qualitiesof case, as used in the English lan- 
guage, is not in the changes or inflections of nouns; but tn 
the various offices and meanings which they perform in a sen- 
tence, agreeably to their position, or state, with other words. 
Many of the ancient, as well as, some of the modern lan- 
guages, vary the termination of nouns to determine their cases ; 
as, 

Nominative dominus, a lord. 

Genitive domini, of a lord. 

Dative domino, to a lord. 

Accusative dominum, a lord. 

Vocative domine, O, lord. 

Ablative domino, from, with, or by a lord. 

This would be a laborious style in English, which to avoid, and 
to render the language more perspicuous, we express the different 
relations, and cases of nouns, by prepositions, verbs, and participles, 
with which government, you will hereafter become acquainted. 

The nominative case to active verbs is the 
agent or subject of the action ; as, Thomas runs. 
The nominative case to verbs of condition, or 
passive verbs, is not the actor, but the receiving 
subject of the action ; as, George is beaten by 
Pompey. 

The possessive case denotes the possessor of 
something; as, this is John's horse; Brown sells 
hoys' hats. 

The possessive ense is known by its ending in an apostro- 
phe and s, or an apostrophe only, when the noun ends in s or 
Gnce, except witness; as, witness's testimony. 

The objective case expresses the object of an 
action, or of a relation. And it generally follows 
a verb, participle, or preposition, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

Remarks on the Possessive Case. — These words in 
italicks are generally called nouns in the possessive case, 
because they denote the possessor of the respective nouns to 
which they are prefixed. It appears to me. that when schol- 
ars are taught to examine — or rather let examine and reflect 
whether, the meaning of words in a sentence corresponds 
with the definition of the part of speech, to which the words 
are classed, they will find an impropriety in saying boys' is a 
noun in the possessive CB$e,because boys' denote the posses- 
sors of the, hats, when they know, they are possessed as the 
property of Brown, who is selling them. Washington's mon- 
ument, is another example of this kind. Who will say the 
monument is owned or possessed by Washington that is dead? 
Perhaps some may say,if Washington is not the actual owmer 
of the monument, that the monument possesses the name 
Washington's; which theory would make gold in the follow- 
ing example, a noun in the possessive case; that is a gold 
watch. Gold we know is in many situations, a noun; but in 
this example, without any modification in termination, it is a 
describing adjective, used to describe what kind of watch it 
is, in contradistinction to a silver or brass watch. If then, 
we admit, that gold agreeably to its situation, without varia- 
tion in spelling, is sometimes a noun, and sometimes an ad- 
jective; why not agree that boys' is an adjective; when it 
varies its spelling — which gold does not — and quite as much 
in its meaning? 

Many nouns in being turned into adjectives receive slight 
modifications of different kinds; as, a nationaZ concern; a 
gloomy prospect; an earth/?/ man. Olher nouns become 
adjectives, without any modification in termination, merely 
from their situation and meaning in a sentence; as, silk makes 
handsome shawls; silk shawls are handsome. 

In the first of these examples, silk is a noun, in the second 
an adjective. I would query then, what is the difference 
in meaning, between saying a national concern, and ^nation's 
concern? 

A noun is the name of a thing; and will make complete 
sense in a sentence with a verb, unconnected by any other 
noun to complete the meaning; an adjective is a word join- 
ed to, or placed before a noun, to define or describe it. Any 
noun placed before another — not in apposition with it — un- 
connected by a hyphen, becomes an adjective in meaning. 

Now abstract a nation's (not the plural of nation,) from a 
noun, before which it is placed to describe, and who will say 



33 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

the term a naiioiis makes sense of itself, any more than & 
good, unconnected to a noun, or that it is the name of a thing* 
which is the alone legitimate office of a noun? In either of 
these examples, the question arises, a nation's lohat? glory: 
a good vchat? book: nation ] s and good are then both adjec^ 
tiveSj used to describe the nouns to which they are prefixed, 
in contradistinction to other nouns of the same name, de- 
scribed by other adjectives. 

I am aware that rules in Grammar have exceptions—but 
the definition of the possessive case appears to have too many 
exceptions to be a rule— or at least, if we can give it a name 
without exception, why not? Should any prefer calling 
Words of this description describing adjectives — they can 
parse them as other describing adjectives. 

As the cases of nouns, are so intimately and inseparably 
connected with the verb$ I shall deter a further explanation 
of them, until I shall have given you some remarks upon 

verbs. 

VERBS, 

A verb is a word which signifies action of 
condition; as, horses run; men write-, the boy is 
beaten. 

Verbs, for the sake of practical convenience, 
may be divided into two classes ; verbs active^ 
and verbs of condition, commonly called pas- 
sive. 

Verbs of condition will be explained in the proper place. 

I will now give some signs by which you may distinguish 
the verb, from other parts of speech, when you areata loss to 
do it by its definition and the meaning it performs in a sen- 
tence. Any word that will make sense with to before it, and 
is after it, is a verb; or any word that will conjugate is a verb, 

The term verb is derived from the Latin word verburn^ 
which signifies a word. And it is called a verb or word by 
way of eminence; because it is the most essential word in a 
sentence, without which the other parts of speech can form 
no complete sense. Thus, the attentive ghlreads her lesson 
with care, is a perfect sentence : but if we take away the verb 
reads, it becomes imperfect, or rather no sentence; The at~ 
tentive girl her lesson with care. 

The noun and verb form the basis of grammar. 



tO A KNOWLEDGE OF EXGtlSH &RAMMAR. 37 

As a verb denotes action, it consequently represents as 
'many actions,as there are actors. The nominative determines 
the number and person of the verb. 

Person is not strictly a property of verbs. When we speak 
of the person of a verb, we mean that it must be spelled to 
agree with the second and third person singular of the pro- 
nouns; because, verbs to agree with these pronouns*, are the 
only ones, which denote the person of their nominatives by 
their spelling. 

Synthesis is the act of combining any of the simples of 
the language into a compound. 

Analysis is separating any thing compound*, into its sim- 
ple or elementary principles. 

To analyze a sentence, is to classify the different words, 
of which it is composed : and to analyze or parse a word, is 
to describe all its various properties^ and its grammatical re- 
lations with other words in a sentence. 

ORDER OF PARSING.* 

The order of parsing a noun, is — a noun, and 
why? Person, and why? Number, and why? 
Case, and w T hy? 

The order of parsing a verb, is — a verb, and 
why? — if it is & verb of condition, (commonly 
called passive,) how is it formed? Mood, and 
why? Tense, and why? Person and number, 
because, k agrees with what nominative? Rule; 
— conjugate it. 

I will now parse an example as a specimen. 

"Emma's sister reads.*" 
Emma/s is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person— 
third person, spoken of — singular number, it represents one 
person — possessive case, it denotes possession — it is govern- 
ed by sister, according to 



♦The distinction between common and proper nouns,can be learned 
in a few hours, without requiring the pupil to make the distinction 
between every noun he parses; to comply with which, consumes 
weeks in going through a system of grammar. And the gender of 
nouns is so easily known by a child of common sense,* that tbe 
continually rehearsing of this distinction is lost time. 
D 



38 



AN EASY AND LUCID GUlDfi 



Rule 2d. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, i§ 
governed by the noun which it possesses. 

Sister is a noun, a name denoting persons — third person, 
spoken of— singular number, it represents one person — nom- 
inative case, it is the active agent of the verb ''reads." 

Reads is a verb, a word which signifies action — third per- 
son, singular number, because the nominative sister is with 
which it agrees, according to 

Rule 1st. A verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person. 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE. 

Snow falls. Abigail sleeps. Eliza exhorts. Printers 
print. Men labour. Girls write. Boys play. David stu- 
dies. Richard mourns. Esther's pen trembles. John's horse 
runs. Peter's dog bites. Uncle's son studies. 

Note. — It will be proper to parse these examples several 
times, until the manner is quite familiar. In parsing the verb, 
do not say it is spoken of j the verb is never spoken of, but 
agrees with its nominative, in number and person. 

Most, if not all actions denoted by verbs, affect at least 
one object^ or have an objective word depending on them in 
construction , whether it is expressed or not. The following 
examples will fully exemplify this statement. 



Dreamers 


dream 


dreams. 


Builders 


build 


buildings. 


Laughers 


laugh 


laughter. 


Singers 


sing 


singing or songs. 


Sitters 


sit or hold 


sittings or sessions. 


Sufferers 


suffer 


suffering. 


Fishers 


fish or catch 


fish. 


Speakers 


speak or make 


speeches. 


Pleaders 


plead or make 


pleadings or pleas. 


Drinkers 


drink 


drink or water. 


Walkers 


walk or take 


walks. 


A coiner 


coins 


coin, 


The glow 


glows or diffuses 


a glowing or glow. 


A player 


plays 


play. 


Rain 


rains 


rain. 


Frost 


frosts or freezes 


frost. 


The sight 


sees 


the sight. 


A person 


personates 


a personage. 


Casters 


cast 


casts or Castings. 


Breathers 


breathe 


breathing or breatb. 


Twisters 


twist 


twists. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

SELF ACTIONS. 

The verbs which have been called reflective, denote ac- 
tions that recur upon the actor, or in which the person does 
something to himself. The great mistake is in supposing, 
that an action is confined wholly to an agent without affecting 
any thing. 

The man cut himself. 

He broke his arm. 

He poisoned himself by taking arsenic. 

He vomited himself by taking an emetic. 

He cured himself by gentle treatment. 

He destroys his health by intemperance. 

He helped himself to apples. 

He takes exercise to refresh himself. 

He sleeps sleep till he is refreshed. 

Thus it may be perceived,that nearly, if not all verbs, may 
have an objective word, by filling up the ellipsis, or the words 
properly omitted, in common, colloquial style. Yet I do not 
wish the pupil to be always required, to name the obj active 
word. As consistency is the object of grammar, I propose 
to those, who believe eat, drink, and talk&XQ intransitive, to 
make their example correspond with their precept, by em- 
ploying those words without objects \ as long as they think 
they are intransitive* This subject will be resumed. 

I will now give you some signs, which will assist in ascer- 
taining the nominative from the objective case. The nomi- 
native case mostly comes before the verb, and may be known 
by asking a question whh ivho or what before the verb; as,the 
boy studies. Who studies? answer, the boy. Then, boy is 
the nominative of the verb studies, Grass grows. What grows? 
answer, grass. Then, grass, according to our sign, is the 
nominative of the verb grows. — And the objective case may 
generally be known by asking a question with whom or what; 
as, what or whom does the action of the verb affect? When 
the object which is affected is ascertained, that object, is in 
the objective case, governed by the verb which tells what is 
done to it. Thus, the man mows grass, What object does 
the action mow affect ? grass: therefore, grass is in the objec- 
tive case, governed by mows. — The nominative case to a "pas- 
sive verb" may seem to come under this sign; but we must 
remember that this is a necessitous exception, which must re- 
main,until we give up the passive verb. The nominative and 
objective cases of nouns, are not known by their spelling, as 
the possessive is, but by the office or situation they have iu & 
geri.ten.ee , 



40 



AN EASY AND LUCJD GUIDE 



Example. Men read grammar. 

Men is a noun, a name denoting persons^-third person^ 
spoken of — plural number, it represents more than one — -non> 
inafive case, it is the active agent of the verb read. 

jteadi&a, verb, a word which signifies action, and governs 
the object grammar — third person, plural number, because 
the nominative men is, with which it agrees* according to 
Rule 1st. A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

Grammar is a noun, the name of a thing — third person, 
spoken of— singular number, it represents one thing- — objec- 
tive case, it is the object of the verb read, and is governed by 
it, according to Rule 3d. Verbs, participles, and prepositions, 
govern the objective case. 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE., 



Agents or 


governing 


possessive 


objects, or 


mom., ease. 


vei % bs. 


case. 


objective case 


Education 


refines 


men*s 


actions., 


Schoolmasters, teach 


people's 


sons. 


Peter 


sells 


merchants 


goods., 


Weems 


wrote 


Washington's 


life. 


Pope 


translated 


Homers 


IUiad. 


Sarah 


bought 


Caroline's 


comb. 


Weems 


wrote 


William Penn' 


s life. 


Cicero 


procured 


Milo's 


release. 


Joab 


slew 


King David's 


son. 


Joseph 


inter pre ted, 


Pharaoh's 


dreams.. 


David 


married 


Saul's 


daughter. 


Jacob, 


loved 


LabanV 


daughter* 


Nom.case. 


Active verbs. 


Norn, case^ 


Active verbs. 


Birds 


fly- 


Roses 


smell. 


Cats 


mew. 


Grass 


grows., 


Men 


laugh. 


Rain 


descends* 


Christiana 


pray. 


Fire 


burns. 


Clouds 


move. 


Nations 


mourn. 


Vessels 


sail. 


Children 


cry. 


Winds 


blow. 


Horses 


neigh. 


Teeth 


ache. 


Smoke 


ascends. 



QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED. 

26, Of what does Etymology treat? 26. Of what does 
Syntax treat 1 ? 26. What is the true principle of classifica- 
tion?' 2j6, How do w,e ascertain the part of speech to,\ybich 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4fl 

a wt>rch belongs? 26. What is meant by its manner of mean- 
ing? 27. What is the number of words in the English lan- 
guage ? " 27. How many parts of speech, and what are their 
names ? 27. What is a noun, and how may it be distinguish- 
ed from other parts of speech? 28. Are nouns used to de- 
note the nonentity or absence of things? 28. How many 
kinds of nouns are there? 28. Explain the difference be- 
tween a common, and proper noun. 29. What belong to 
nouns? 29. What is gender? 29. How many genders have 
nouns? 31. What is person? 31. How many persons have 
nouns? 32. What is.- number?" 32. How many numbers 
have nouns? 32. Explain the difference. 34. What is case ? . 
34. How many cases have nouns?' 34. Explain the three 
cases. 34. Does case consist in the inflections of a noun? 

36. What is a verb? 36. How many kinds of verbs? 36. 
What sign distinguishes a verb? 37. What is synthesis? 

37. What is analysis? 37. What is parsing. 38. What 
does rule first say? 38. What does rule second say? 40. 
What does rule third say? 39. How may the nominative 
case be distinguished? 34. How may the possessive be 
known?: 39. How may the objective be known? 37. What 
is the order of parsing a noun? 37. What is the order of. 
parsinga verb? 

The following questions on the notes need not be answered un- 
til the second time going through the book . 

28. What is a noun signifying many sometimes called ? 29. Give 
examples of verbal or participial nouns, 29. Some examples 
of abstract nouns. 29. Explain the difference between an ab- 
stract noun and adjective. 32. What nouns are used only in the 
singular form ? 32. What nouns are the same in both number?? 
S3. How is the plural number of nouns generally formed? 33. 
When the singular noun ends in #, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, how is the 
plural formed ? 33. When the singular ends in ch hard, how is the 
plural formed? 33. How do nouns ending in / or fe form the 
plural? 33. How those ending in ff? 33. How do nouns ending 
in v, with no other vowel in the same syllable? 33. Of what num- 
ber are news, measles, odds, and gallows? 33. How is means 
used? 33 ^ What is the rule in respect to things measured and 
weighed ? 

An Observation. Nouns frequently become verbs: and 
words, which are generally verbs, sometimes become nouns. 
These changes depend ou the office a word performs in a sen- 
tence: Thus, when I say, men love — love is a verb: — But 
when I say the love of men is great: — love is a noun. Many 
other words vary in like manner to this. You will be able 
to comprehend these changes, bv a little resort to methodical 
d2 



42 AN EASY AND LUCID GUmE? 

thinking,. and by bringing into action the distinguishing ex- 
cellence of man — judgment and reason; which omit not to 
exercise freely. — And permit me to say, it will be proper^, 
when you have proceeded thus far, "to turn back" to Lecture 
2d, and read the whole Lecture carefully over, and parse alfc 
^lie examples.. 



LECTURES Sd.— OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ? 
it is also sometimes a representative for a sen- 
tence, or member of a sentence, 

Illustration. "A woman went to a man, and told him,. 
that he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of 
robbers, who had made preparations for attacking him. He 
thanked her for her kindness, and as he was unable to defend 
himself , he left his house and went to a neighbor's." 

These words in Italicks are all pronouns, and the beauty 
and utility of them will be clearly perceived, and duly appre- 
ciated by employing the nouns which the respective pronouns 
represent; thus: "A woman went to a man,, and told the 
man that the man was in great danger of being murdered by 
a gang of robbers; as a gang of robbers had made prepara- 
tions for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman 
for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to 
defend the man's, self, the man left the man's house and went 
to a neighbor's." 

Pro is the Latin preposition for. Pronouns ate nouns- 
used instead of other nouns to prevent their tiresome frequen- 
cy; as exemplified in the above example. 

The principal pronouns in the English lan- 
guage are, I, my, me, thou, thy or thine, thee, he y 
his, him, she, her, it, we, ye or you, they, their, 

them, who % whose, and whom. 

The simple theory of English pronouns, is that a specific 
and invariable word is prepared for each relative position 
in which a pronoun, can be placed. And that one is not to 
be deemed a different ending or spelling of the other. The 
words / and me; we an&ws/.sAe andfer; are from totally 
distinct roots ; and there wa& &q, more reason to suppose, 
from their relative employment^ that one was a derivative 
from the other, than that William Tell is the objective case 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4$ 

of Switzerland ; or that the name knife-blade was derived from? 
bucks-horn, because handles are sometimes made of that 
material. 

The following arrangement presents the pronouns in the 
different persons, numbers, and cases,, as they are correlatively 
used, and it is essentially important that they be particularly- 
memorised., 

FIRST PERSON. 



Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. I, 




we, 


Poss. my or mine, 




our or ours, 


Obj. me. 




us. 


SECOND PERSON. 




Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. thou, 




ye or you, 


Poss. thy or thine, 




your or yours,. 


Obj. thee. 




you. 


THIRD 


PERSON. 




Mas. Sing.. 




Plur. 


Nom. he, 




they, 


Poss. his, 




their or theirs,. 


Obj. him. 




them. 


THIRD 


PERSON. 




Fern. Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. she, 




they, 


Poss. her or hers, 




their or theirs,. 


Obj. her. 




them. 


THIRD 


PERSON. 




Neut. Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. It,, 




they, 


Poss. its, 




their or theirs,. 


Obj. it. 




them. 



The following are of both numbers, both genders, and oP 
any of the three persons; always agreeing with the nouns- 
for which they stand*. 

Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. 

" whoever, ) " whosever, " whomever,, 

" whosoever, \ " whosesoever, " whomsoever. 

Note. A critical grammarian will certainly analyze the ever 
and soever, separately from the pronouns who and whom. kt Tbe 
frequent use of these pronouns, with eves and soever joined to 
them, is by no meansapppovable in elegant writing." 

In the list of pronouns, it will be seen that these words by 
various forms, preserve more clearly the relations of number^ 



44 A& EASY AND LUCID GUIDE^ 

gender, ana 1 position or case, than the nouns which they 
represent. 

Who when used in asking a question, may be called an 
interrogative pronoun: parsed in the same way as when it 1*3 
not used in asking a question. Or it may be called a com- 
pound word, equivalent to an interrogative adjective and 
noun. Example: Who is he? the full meaning of the sen- 
tence is this; what man or what boy is he? Who comes? 
what man, what woman, what boy, what girl, what person, or 
what child comes? 

Who and whom are strictly applied to persons, and not to 
brutes or inanimate things, except by personification. The 
pronouns of the, first and second persons are necessarily con- 
fined to intelligent beings; because these only can enter into 
social .conversation. 

Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are generally 
called compound personal pronouns, because they represent 
both the possessors and the things possessed ; as exemplified in 
the following examples; that book is mine; this \shers; thine 
is good; ours is better; yours is the best; and cheilosis the 
neatest. Mine in the first example is equivalent to my- book, 
&c. &e. 

> Ones is a pronoun of the plural number, and may be parsed 
as the personal pronouns are. One is sometimes a noun; as 
the holy one: — the evil one. Others is a compound word 
equivalent to the defining adjective other, and some appro- 
priate noun which it represents; as, I will study; others may 
do as they please. Others may be resolved into other men, 
women, or children may do as they please. None is a pronoun 
equivalent to "not one." It is also used, though perhaps 
not with strict propriety, to represent either a singular or plu- 
ral noun. 

That* may be called a pronoun, when it seems to repre- 
sent both persons and things, — or when it would properly 
belong, in the strict character of an adjective, to a plural noun 
understood : as the men and horses that were drowned have 
been found. — u Which in examples like this is preferable." 

Person, number, gender, and case belong to 
pronouns. 



*Should any doubt that, always being an adjective, let them read 
the Diversions of PuRLEr,Vol . lst,Page 67;and Allen Fisk's 
Murray Simplified, Page 115; whieh I think will fully satis- 
fy them. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

Pronouns have three persons in each number, 
first, second^ and third. Two numbers, singular 
and plural Three distinct forms to distinguish 
gender ; masculine, feminine and neuter. Three 
cases, nominative, possessive, and objective. 

Gender has respect only to the third person 
singular; he, she, it 

The gender of nouns and pronouns is so easily known, 
that much explanation seems unnecessary. The first and 
second person of the pronouns, have no peculiar termination,, 
to denote the sex which they represent; because they are 
present, holding the conversation, which renders such a 
termination useless. 

By paying strict attention to the difference in the forms 
or spelling of pronouns, their person, number, and case, may 
easily be known ; for in all situations they are the same, ex- 
cept her, it and you. Her, when joined to a noun, is call- 
ed possessive case; and when unconnected with a noun,, 
objective case. It and you, when actors of an action, are 
in the nominative case; when they are not actors, they are in 
the objective. — /, in every sentence, is always first person, 
singular number, nominative case. Thy, second person, 
sing, num., poss. case. Thee, second person, singular num- 
ber, objective case, &c. &c. As we frequently speak to 
things, as well as to persons, we must consider things in 
grammar, and use words which will denote when the thing is 
spoken to, and when the thing is spoken of. You remember 
that person is a property of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
the person speaking, the person spoken to, and the person 
spoken of; it also varies the verb in the second and third 
person singular; as, 





Singular. 






Plural K 


1. 


Per, I run, 


h 


Per. 


We run> 


2! 


Per. Thou runnest, 


2. 


Per. 


Ye or you run, 


3. 


Per. He runs or ) 
runneth. \ 


3. 


Per. 


They run. 



This shows how the verb varies to agree with its nomina- 
tive, and is of great importance to remember; for, whenever 
a verb ends in est, or st, it must agree with a nominative of 
the second person, singular: and when it ends in s, or eth, it 
js of the third person, singular; and must agree with a nou> 



46 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

inativeof the third person singular. This sign will gener- 
ally apply, whether the nominative is expressed or not, and 
will enable you to know with what pronouns, the verbs must 
agree. 

Rule 1st. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
number and person. 

The use ofthisrule is obvious; for it would not be correct 
to say, I reads, or readethj because the verb reads or readeth 
is of the third person singular, and I is nominative of the 
first person. It would be equally incorrect to say, Thou go, 
or goes ; because neither of these verbs is of the second per- 
son singular, as it should be, to agree with the nominative 
thou; therefore, the verb should be goest, then it would agree 
"With its nominative, agreeably to the Rule, 

By looking at the conjugation, or different endings of run, 
we may observe that the spelling of the verb denoting the plu- 
ral actions, does not vary its terminations to denote the differ^ 
ent persons of the plural actors, as it does to denote the sec? 
ond and third person singular. But this is easily understood 
when we remember it is the obeisantand proper duty of the 
verb, to express as many actions, as there are actors, and to 
agree with them in person, whether first, second, or third. 

NOTES. 

1st. The pronoun It stands for a sentence, or sentences, a circum- 
stance, or circumstances, an idea, or ideas. According to H. 
Tooke, it is equivalent to said; as, It is the man: (that is,) the 
mid man is the man. He says it was used indifferently joined to 
either a singular or plural noun. It, at the present day is not 
considered an adjective, and joined to a noun, but a representative 
for a noun, either of the singular or plural number, masculine out 
feminine gender, and may be in the nominative or objective case, 
"It is desirable that grammar should be explained." Here the 
pronoun^ represents the whole idea which the sentence conveys; 
and for which whole sentence, a noun might readily be substituted. 
Other pronouns may also stand for ideas equivalent to nouns. 

2d. Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn 
style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent h; as, "Blot 
out all mine iniquities." When thus used, thej r are not compound 
pronouns, but simple pronouns in the possessive case. 

3d . Self, added to pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, 
&c, are used as compound personal pronouns, in the nominative 
or objective case. 

" Self is that conscious thinking th ing, which is sensible or con- 
scious of pleasure or pain, happiness or misery.— Locke's Essays. 

u lt would be better to write the nouns and descriptive word sep- 
arately , as, a dearer self; our own selves . — Cardell. 

u l use his self and their selves, instead of the corrupt words^ 
faimpelfzni themselves,— %m W. Jones' Persian Qrammar^ 



fO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, tf 
ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a pronoun is — a pronoun^ 
fetndwhy? person, and why? gender and num- 
ber, and why? case> and why? 

We love our teacher. 

We is a pronoun, because it stands for the speakers under- 
stood — first person, it denotes the speakers — plural number^ 
because the noun speakers is, for which it stands — nomina- 
tive case^ it represents the actors, of the verb 'love.' 

Love is a verb, a word which signifies action, and governs 
the object teacher — first person plural, because its nom. we 
is, with which it agrees, according to Rule 1st. A verb must 
agree with its nominative in number and person. 

Our is a pronoun, because it stands for the speakers un- 
derstood — first person, it denotes the speakers — plural num- 
ber, because the noun speakers is$ for which it stands — pos^ 
sessive case, it denotes possession, and is governed by the 
noun teacher, agreeably to Rule 2d . A noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case, is governed by the noun which it posses^ 
ses. 

Teacher is a noun, a name denoting persons — third per- 
son, spoken of — singular number, it represents one person — 
objective case, it is the object of the verb love, and is govern- 
ed by it, according to Rule 3d. Verbs, participles, and pre- 
positions govern the objective case. 

Preceptor, thou teachest us and we love thee. 

Thou is a pronoun, because it stands for, preceptor,— se- 
cond person, it denotes the person spoken to — masculine 
gender — singular number, because the noun preceptor is, for 
which it stands— nominative case, it represents the actor of 
the verb 'teachest.'' 

Us is a pronoun, because it stands for the speakers under- 
stood — first person, it denotes the speakers— plural number, 
because the noun speakers is$ for which it stands — objective 
case^ it is the object of the verb ' teachest j' and governed by 
it, according to Rule 3d; Verbs^ participles, and prepositions 
govern the objective case. 

Thee is a pronoun, because it stands for preceptor— second 
person, it denotes the person spoken to— masculine gender- 
singular number, because the noun preceptor is, for which it 
stands— objective ca9e$ it is the object of the verb lovej and 
governed by it, according to Rule 3d. Verbs, participles,and 
prepositions govern the objective case; 



48 AN EASY AND LUCID GUlDfi 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE. 

They teach us. We teach them. She instructs him* 
He instructs her. I love thee. Thou lovest him* I read 
my book. Thou readest thy book. She dislikes her book. 
He studies his Grammar. They disobey their teacher. Re- 
ligion adorns youth; it dignifies their conduct; its excel- 
lence ennobles them. Heat expands bodies; its absence 
contracts them. He improves himself They improve them- 
selves. 

EXAMPLES OF THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Their apples excel mine; my peaches excel theirs. 

Mine is a compound pronoun, equivalent to my apples. 
My is a pronoun, because it stands for the speaker understood 
—first person, it denotes the speakers-singular number, be- 
cause the noun speaker is, for which it stands— possessive 
case, it denotes possession, and is governed by the noun 
"apples" according to Rule 2d. A noun or pronoun in the 
possessive case is governed by the noun which it possesses. 
Apples is a noun, a name of things — third person, spoken 
•of — plural number, it represents more than one — objective 
case, it is the object of the verb excel, and is governed by 
it, according to Rule 3d. Verbs, participles, and preposi- 
tions govern the objective case. Theirs is a compound pro- 
noun, equivalent to their peaches, and is parsed similarly to 
mine. 

Some very eminent grammarians parse the compounds as defin- 
ing adjectives ; contending that there is as much propriety, and 
analogy, in supplying the noun after theirs or hers, as after his $ 
mine, thine, and its. This plan, if sanctioned by best usage $ would 
certainly lighten the labor of the student. 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE. 

Her virtues adorn her; theirs instruct us; hers improve 
them. My application improves me; thine aggrandizes thee; 
thine excels mine. His writings instruct; jours teach folly; 
ours teach morality. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUNS. 

42. What is a pronoun? 42. What is Prof 42; Name 
the principal pronouns in the English language. 43. Name 
the prohoiins in the different persons, numbers, arid cases, 
as they are correlatively used. 44. How rrlay who be 
parsed when used in asking a question? 44. Are who and 
whom applied to brutes? 44. What are mine, thine, hers } 



fO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 4Q 

e ®ur§, yours, and theirs, and how are they parsed? 44, 
What part of speech is ones? 44, What is others? 44, 
Under what circumstances may that be called a pronoun? 
45. How many persons, numbers, genders, and cases have 
pronouns? 45. Gender has respect only to what person f 
45. Explain how a verb varies to agree with its nominative 
in the second and third person singular. 45. Explain when 
her is in the possessive, and when in the objective case. 45, 
Explain when you and it are in the nominative, and when in 
the objective case. 

ON THE NOTES. 

46. Explain the pronoun it. 46. When are mine and thine 
simple pronouns? 46. When self is added to pronouns what are 
ihey called ? 



LECTURE 4 th.— of participle*. 

A Participle is a word which expresses the 
action, condition, or descriptive quality of a noun 
or pronoun. 

The term Participle comes from the Latin word participio^ 
which signifies to partake; and this name is given to the 
participle, because it partakes of the nature of the verb, and 
of the adjective. 

A verb has two participles, the present-imper- 
fect, and the perfect. 

The present-imperfect participle, always ends 
in ing, and denotes unfinished action. 

The perfect participle, which ends in ed, n, en, 
or t, denotes finished action. 

The present participles, having or being, pla- 
ced before perfect participles, form a compound 
participle^ implying action completed before the 
E 



50 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

time referred to: as, having ruled, having been 
ruled, the letter being finished, he sent it away. 

A participle is a word which expresses the action, 
condition, or descriptive quality of a noun. A few ex- 
amples will clearly show the propriety of this definition. Th$ 
boy is gathering apples; I see the girls learning grammar, 
Here the participles gathering and learning express the ac- 
tions of the boy and girls. In these respects, they partake of 
the nature of verbs. They also express a descriptive quality 
(like describing adjectives,) of the boy and girls; therefore, 
in this respect, they participate of the properties of adjectives. 
They express action continuing or going on; that is, incom- 
plete, unfinished actions; for which reason they are called 
imperfect participles. 

When the present-imperfect, and perfect par- 
ticiples, are placed before nouns, they are called 
participial adjectives; as, an accomplished scho- 
lar. But when they are placed after nouns, they 
are called participles ; as, a scholar accomplished* 

Philosophically speaking, there is but a slight shade of 
difference in the meaning of a perfect participle, and a parti* 
rj pi al adjective; yet I think a sufficient one, to warrant the 
distinction. Illustration: If I say I have an accomplished 
scholar, that is: I have a scholar accomplished: — And I have 
accomplished a scholar. If there is no primitive difference 
in the meaning of these expressions, there is certainly a wide 
difference in the meaning inferred by custom; which differ- 
ence depends entirely upon the manner in which the term is 
applied. The first expression implies, that I possess a scho- 
lar which was accomplished; and the expression does not 
intimate whether with or without my agency, whether one 
year or ten years ago. And the meaning of the latter ex- 
pression is, that I performed the act or task, of making him 
an accomplished scholar, myself. This certainly shows the 
propriety of the distinction. 

EXAMPLES. 
PARTICIPLES. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

The wind is roaring. I hear the roaring wind. 

The teacher is teaching. See the teaching teacher. 

The twig is broken. The broken twig fell. 

The boy accomplished by the The accomplished boy, I love, 
teacher, I love. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

The present-imperfect participle may be known by its 
dnding in ing; as, going, beating, telling, and flying, &C 
these are derived from the verbs, go, beat,- tell, and fl} ; there- 
fore thev are participles. 

But all words ending in ing, are not participles, such as, 
morning,- evening, unbelieving, uncontrollmg, sapling, un- 
interesting, &c. because they are not derived from verbs. 
In parsing a word ending in ing, always consider whether it 
comes from a verb or not: If it comes- from a verb, it is a par- 
ticiple: if it does not come from a verb, it is an adjective or 
noun. For example,, telling is a participle, because there 
is such a verb as believe, from which believing ] s derived; 
but unbelieving is an adjective, because there is no such verb 
as unbelieve, from which it could be derived. 

The participle never varies to agree with a noun or pronoun ; 
for it has no nominative nor agreement, but merely refers to 
either a singular or plural noun, of which it expresses the 
action, condition, or descriptive quality. But as a participle 
derived from a verb, expresses the same kind of action as the 
verb from which it is derived, it of course must govern the 
same case. Compound participles sometimes govern the 
objective case ; as, He, having finished his academical course, 
went home. He, having studied grammar, is now a profi- 
cient. 

NOTES. 

1. Participles frequently become nouns; as>. understanding, 
reading, writing, beginning, ending, cyphering,, kc. It is a gene- 
ral rule to call a participle with */te before it, and o/after it a noun. 

2. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the pos- 
sessive case; as, "Upon God's having ended his work, fee." "At 
my coming in, &c." The noun God is governed by the participle 
having, and the pronoun my, by coming. 

3. Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination 
%ng, ed, or en: ing signifies the same thing as the noun being. It 
implies that what is meant by the verb is continued ; en is an alter- 
ation for the Saxon verb an; edis a contraction of dede. Partici- 
ples ending in en, or ed, usually denote the dede, dedo, doed, did, 
done or finished state of what is indicated by the verb. The book 
is printed ; i. e. it is n printed ox print-done book ; or such a one as the 
done act of printing has made it . The letter is written; that is, it 
has received the done ov finished act of writing it. 

ORDER OF PARSING* 

The order of parsing a participle is, — a parti- 
ciple, and why? Name the three participles- 
Present, perfect, and compound, and why? T9> 
what does it refer? Rule,. 



gg AN EASY AND LUCfD GUIDE 

I see ladies teaching girls. 
Teac7iing*is a participle, because it expresses the action 
or descriptive quality of the noun ladies, and comes from the 
verb to teach-^-present teaching,, perfect taught, compound 
having taught— it is a present-imperfect participle, because 
it denotes unfinished action — it refers to the noun ladies, 
according to Rule 5. Participles refer to the nouns or pro- 
nouns of which they express the action, condition, or descrip- 
tive quality. Girls is a noun, a name denoting persons — 
third person,, spoken of — plural number, it implies more than 
one — objective case, it is the object of the participle "teach- 
ing,'* and governed by it ? according to Rule 3, Verbs, par-. 
ticiples, and prepositions govern the objective case.. 

EXAMPLES TO PARSER 

Preceptor is teaching Chemistry. Pupils studying Geog- 
raphy make progress. Preceptress left us playing ball. 
Man beholds: stars adorning night. Men abusing their ser-, 
vants incur censure. Emily instructing us improves them. 
Children see horses. running. He having studied grammar 
has left school. She having studied Botany instructs us. 
George having studied Latin teaches it. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PARTICIPLES. 

49. What is a participle? 49. From wjhat word does the 
term participle come? 49. How many participles have 
verbs? 49. Explain the present-imperfect, and perfect par- 
ticiples? 49. How is the compound participle formed? 50. 
Explain how a participle expresses the action,, condition, o% 
descriptive quality of a noun? 50. When do present-imper- 
fect and perfect participles become defining or describing ad- 
jectives? 50. Explain the difference between a participle 
and participial adjective. 5L How may a present-imperfect 
participle be known? 51. Are all words ending in ing par- 
ticiples? 52. What rule applies in parsing participles? 51. 
Repeat the order of parsing a participle. 51. Does the par- 
ticiple vary to agree with the noun to which it refers? 52* 
What rule applies in parsing a noun or pronoun in the objec-. 
tive case governed by a participle? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

5,1. Are participles ever used as other parts of speech? 51. Do 
participles ever govern the possessive case] 51. How are partici- 
ples formed ? 



*A11 three ofthe participles, refer to nouns or pronouns, express-, 
ed or uftd^rajtopd,. according to JJ-ule 5. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 



LECTURE 5th.— of adjectives. 

An adjective is a word used w r ith a noun, to 
define or describe it; or to ask a question; as, 
handsome books ; two intelligent young wo- 
men; three fine apples; what book is that? 

Adjectives are of three kinds, defining, des- 
cribing, and interrogative. 

Defining adjectives, define, point out, or spe- 
cify, directly, w r hich or what things, how 7 many, 
or how much. 

The chief defining adjectives are, a, an, one, two, twain, 
three, and all the numbers used in counting; first, second, 
third, and all the ordinal numbers; many, much, few, seve- 
ral, little, this, that, the, these, those, former, latter, which, 
what,other, each, every, either, neither, some, no, all, any, an- 
other, such, both, same, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, 
and whatsoever. 

The first syllables of the four last words are adjectives. The re- 
maining ones belong to another class of words. 

The defining adjectives, (commonly, though erroneously 
called "adjective pronouns,") may be divided into the follow- 
ing classes, which are more complex, and uncertain, than use- 
ful, to the common learner, if he understands, as he always 
should, the meaning of the different words which compose 
these classes. 

The demonstrative adjectives are, this, that, the, these, 
those, former, latter, both, same, no, all, which, what, which- 
ever, and whatever. 

The indefinite adjectives are, some, other, any, all, such* 
tnuch, many, few, several, and little. 

The distributive adjectives are, each, every, either, and 
sometimes neither. 

The cardinal numbers, which denote the amount numeri- 
cally taken, are, one, two, three, one hundred, &x. The or- 
dinal numbers, which show the relative succession in the or- 
der of things, are, first, second, third, one hundredth, &c. 
e2 



54 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Describing adjectives express the qualities 
and conditions of things in different degrees. — * 
1st. They designate the quality, kind, or sort 
of things ; as, good, bad ; old, new; wise, sensi- 
ble, ignorant. 2d, They describe the condition, 
situation, or relative circumstances of things; as,. 
6 *a finished or unfinished house," A complete 
or incomplete book, 

Between defining- and describing adjectives there is not 
much difference, for they run into each other in various ways;. 
as, when we say, the "northern hemisphere," northern defines 
which half of the globe w 7 e mean, and describes its local re- 
lation to the other half." — Describing adjectives refer to pro- 
nouns as welt as fa the nouns for which they stand; as, the 
girl in good; she is good.. 

Which and what, when used with nouns ex- 
pressed or understood, in asking questions, may 
be called interrogative adjectives. 

Although which and what, when used in an interrogative sentence 
are almost invariably called interrogatives, yet from the following 
example, it will be seen, the question does not always rest on them. 
Dost thou know which road we came ? Here the whole force of the 
question is on the three first words, and which only relates to the as- 
sertative identity of the road. This remark will equally apply to 
the pronoun who y when used in an interrogative sentence. 

Many nouns become adjectives by use, and 
serve either to define or describe other nouns; 
as, a man servant, a servant man; glass win- 
dow, window glass,. &,c. 

Other nouns in being turned into adjectives T 
receive slight modifications of different kinds; 
as, an earthly man; a national concern; a gloo- 
my prospect. 

To distinguish nouns from adjectives, put the question, is 
the word used merely to name things, or to point out and de- 
scribe other things. — The following sign, though not infalli- 
ble,, may also assist very young children :■ any word (except a 
verb) that will make sense with person or thing-a.fteT.it, is an 
adjective^ as, a wise, sensible, good, great, pretty, white, or 
short person^ &c. A blue, red, or green thing, &c. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5£ 

The nouns to which adjectives belong, in common con- 
versation or writing, are frequently omitted to shorten dis- 
course, and to avoid a clumsy or monotonous style; as, "the 
upright (persons) are justified." "The virtuous (persons) and 
sincere (persons) are always esteemed." In parsing, the 
noun is always understood. 

A considerable number of adjectives are compounded of 
two or more simple ones. The word w hat, is which that or 
that which. And custom makes it equivalent to the which? 
ox those which. Each of the defining adjectives, refers to a 
noun, expressed or understood; as, I like what (that thing, 
which thing) is good. What (those things, which things) de- 
light you, are Chemistry and Algebra. Whatever study you 
pursue, I will pursue: or that study you pursue is the study 
(or which study) 1 will pursue. Adjectives sometimes be- 
long to whole sentences, or to an appropriate noun under- 
stood to represent them ; as, "We are required to fear God 
and keep his commandments, which is the whole duty of 
man." It may be rendered thus: Which thing, or which re- 
quisition "is the whole duty, of man." 

The word which is always an adjective, specifying identi- 
cally a following noun, which (following noun) must be ex- 
pressed, if it is not necessarily understood; as, "Ail which 
things succeeded to his desire." The language of legal pro- 
ceedings, where words are multiplied, beyond what is allow- 
ed in elegant, easy style, furnish ample proof of which always 
being an adjective; as, "B. D. bought a house, for which 
house he agreed to pay five hundred dollars, and which said 
sum he has not paid," &c. — The scriptures, and Common 
writing, are more elliptical; as, "Beware of false prophets, 
which (prophets) come to you in sheep's clothing." "I will 
utter things which (things) have been kept secret fronv the 
foundation of the world." 

When one adjective is used to define or de- 
scribe another^ instead of referring directly to 
the nouns, it may be called a secondary adjec- 
tive. Secondary adjectives refer to the different 
species of things which come under one general 
head ; as, an honest meaning person ; a snow 
white linen neck cloth ; many canal boats ; a 
real good mm. 



56 AN EAST? AND LUCID GUIDE 

A fine silk shawl. 
Fine and silk are both adjectives: the first describes the 
second, and both refer to the noun shawl. There are not only 
different kinds of shawls, but also different kinds of silk 
shawls. — A shawl may be cotton, or ivorsied, or silk. A silk 
shawl may be a China, French, or Italian one ; and this 
again may be one of a dozen colors; as blue, red, ox green. — 
The color also takes various subdivisions; '&s,sea-green,grass- 
green, pea-green ; and these again may be pale, dull, bright, 
or deep. 

Many second adjectives are formed by adding 
ly or like to other words. 

An orange grove is a grove of orange trees. An orange- 
like grove is one which resembles an orange grove. A gen~ 
ilemanly ox gentleman-like person, is a man who acts in the 
character of a gentleman. 

EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY ADJECTIVES FOR PRACTICE. 

A snow white linen neck cloth. 
A, denning adjective, referring to cloth. 
Snow, secondary adjective, describing the kind of white. 
White, adjective describing linen. 
Linen, adjective describing cloth. 
Neck, adjective describing cloth. 

Beautiful red Morocco shoes. 

Genuine old Madeira wine. 

Neat long primer printing. 

Fine British ink powder. 

Pittsburg cutfiint decanters. 

Dry chesnut wood. 

A deep blue gabardine. 

A fiery red hot shovel. 

A pale red house. 

A dark colored man. 

Most elegant marble chimneys. 
The adjectives in the above examples come under abroad 
principle, founded on the minor divisions in the sorts, quali- 
ties, and degrees, included in the extended application of«r 
primary descriptive word. 

In the English language, describing adjectives have no 
person, number, gender, or case; they are varied only to ex- 
press the degrees of comparison. They have three degree* 
of comparison; the positive, comparative, and superlative. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57- 

The positive degree expresses the quality of an object^ 
without increase or diminution, and is the adjective itself^ 
as, good, wise, great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in 
signification; as, better, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to 
its highest or lowest terms ; as, best, wisest, great est, least wise. 

The termination ish added to. adjectives, expresses a slight 
degree of comparison below the positive; as, black, blackish;- 
that is, partially inclining to black. This may be called the 
minor positive degree. 

The comparative is generally formed by adding r, er, more % 
or less, to the positive. 

The superlative is generally formed by adding st, est, ?nost > 
or least, to the positive. 

COMPARISON INCREASING THE POSITIVE. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Rich, richer, richest. 

Industrious, more industrious, most industrious. 

COMPARISON DIMINISHING THE POSITIVE. 

Positive, Comparative^ Superlative. 

Rich, less rich, least rich. 

Industrious, less industrious, least industrious. 

The essential idea and meaning on which all adjectives 
depend is that of comparison, or the relations of things to 
each other. And while the above arrangement of three de-. 
grees of comparison, is found convenient in practice, it should 
be borne in mind, that the form called positive,, is in fact 
strictly comparative. Whatever is high, is so, in reference 
to something else which is lower. The adjective in the pos- 
itive degree is associated with the idea of what is appropriate 
to the thing in which the quality is conceived to exist. The 
definition of the superlative will, not always hold good; as, 
My pen is not good A yet it is the best I have. Here the su- 
perlative degree "the best," instead of increasing the posi- 
tive, does not come up to it in quality. 
NOTF.S. 

1st. Monosyllables are compared by erand est; as, black, black- 
er, blackest. 

2d. Dissyllables ending in y and /e, after a mute, as able^ ampler 
and dissyllables accented on the last syllable, may be compared 
by er and e«t; as, happy, happier, happiest, &c . Words of more 
than two syllables hardly ever admit this mode of comparison. 

3d. iSether, utter, under, upper, fore and hind, form the super-. 



58 AN EASY AND LUCID GU1D& 

lative by adding most to the end of them; as, nethermost, utter- 
most, &c. 

4th. There are several adjectives, from totally distinct root?, 
which are correlatively associated in forming the degrees of compar- 
ison; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; 
much or many, more, most; and a few others. 

5th. The following adjectives, and many others, denote a super- 
lative quality, which cannot be increased or diminished, because, 
from the nature of things, more cannot b^, and less is inconsistent 
with the meaning of the word; as, chief, extreme, right, honest, 
just, true, sincere, correct, vast,, immense, ceaseless, infinite, end- 
Jess, unparalleled, universal, Supreme, unlimited, Omnipotent, 
All-wise, Eternal, ripe, accurate, immaculate, entire, complete, 
&c. An attempt to qualify these words, by prefixing v ery, or any 
other qualifying word to them, is not only a grammatical inaccu- 
racy, but a solecism. 

6th. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting quality 
arising from the figure of bodies, do not admitcomparison ; as, well- 
formed, frost-bitten, round, square^ oblong,, circular, quadrangu- 
lar, conical, &c. because, if a thing is round, another cannot be 
more so, and if it is not round, it is not correctly entitled to the ap- 
pellation. 

In relation to comparison, it is quality, in different degrees, that 
we are comparing, not quantity; therefore^ any thing that is mea- 
sured ox fixed to have certain constituent principles, before it can 
have that name, cannot be compared : for instance, frost-bitten can* 
not be compared, because there are fixed causes that must effect a 
frost bite. — But all colors, Sec. are to be compared, because they 
admit differ f-nt degrees or shades of the same color ; still this com- 
parison is not made in reference to the quantity or surface of the 
thing effected by putting the color.on it. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an adjective is — an ad^- 
jective, and why? if describing degree of com- 
parison, and why? to what does it- refer? Rule. 

Generous men assist poor people.. 

Generous is an adjective, because it describes the quality 
of men — positive degree,.it expresses the quality of an object 
without increase or diminution, and rsfers to men, agreeably 
to Rule 4th. Adjectives refer to nouns or pronouns express- 
ed or understood . 

Men is a noun, a name denoting persons — third person, 
spoken of — plural number, it represents more than one — 
nominative case, it is the active agent of the verb "assist."' 

Assist is a verb, a word which signifies action, and gov- 
erns or effects the object people — third person plural, because 
the nominative men is, with which it agrees, according to 
Rule 1. A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
md person. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

Poor is an adjective, because it describes the kind of peo- 
ple men assist — positive degree, it expresses the quality of 
an object without increase or diminution, and it refers to 
people, according to Rule 4. Adjectives refer to nouns or 
pronouns expressed or understood. 

People is a noun, a name denoting persons — third person, 
spoken of — plural number, it represents more than one per- 
son — it is the object of the verb "assist,'" and is governed by 
jt according to Rule 3. Verbs, participles, and prepositions 
govern the objective case. 

We hear the roaring wind . 

Roaring* is a participial adjective, because it describes 
the noun wind— positive degree, it expresses the quality of 
an object without increase or diminution, and refers to the 
noun wind according to Rule 4. Adjectives refer to nouns or 
pronouns expressed or understood. 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE. 

The industrious bees make honey. A peaceful mind en- 
joys happiness. A virtuous conflict brings its reward. The 
dutiful young stork supports its old, helpless parent. An 
affable deportment graces youth. The crowning harvest 
inspires the humble, grateful mind. A cheerful, good, old man 
gladdens his family. Well-behaved children attract general 
esteem. Naughty, disobedient children merit disesteem. 
Good children love employment^ indolent children prefer 
idleness. 

Note. — The adjectives in the above parsing lesson ar<) 
describing,* in the following they are describing, defining, and 
interrogative. 

What are you doing? 

What, is an interrogative adjective, because it is used with 
thing understood to ask a question, and refers to it, according 
to Rule 4. Adjectives refer to nouns or pronouns expressed 
or understood. 

Each pupil recites his lesson. 

Each is a defining adjective, because it defines pupil, to 
which it refers, according to Rule 4. Adjectives refer to 
nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. 

I like what you dislike. 
What is a compound adjective, equivalent to that which. 

•This word is parsed a? an adjective: many participial adjeo* 
lives have degrees of comparison . 



?«Q0 &N EASY Afrf) LUCID GUfr>£ 

That is a defining adjective, because it defines thing "under- 
stood, to which it refers, according to Rule 4. Adjectives 
refer to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood. Which 
is a defining adjective, because it defines thing understood, 
to which it refers, according to Rule 4. &c. The first thing 
to which that refers is in the objective case, governed by like; 
the second thing, defined by which, is in the objective case* 
governed by dislike. 

The first adjective of the compound what, may refer to the 
agent of one verb, and the second to either, the agent or object 
of some other. What may also be parsed, by the practical 
scholar, as one adjective referring to a noun expressed or 
understood. When it is thus parsed, we must remember that 
it expresses dssertative identity, and that the same noun, to 
which it refers, is to be again understood, and to be agreea- 
bly to its situation, either the agent, or object of some other 
verb. Example : I like what [thing] thou dislikest, [what or 
the same thing.] What is a defining adjective, because it 
defines thing understood, to which it refers, according to 
Rule 4. Thing is a noun, (parse it in full,) in the objective 
case, governed by like. The same identical thing under- 
stood, is in theobjective case, governed by dislike. 
A man studies. 

A is a defining adjective, because itdefines man, to which 
-it refers, according to Rule 4. Adjectives refer to nouns or 
pronouns expressed or understood. 

Thirty men are here. 

Thirty is atlefining adjective, because it defines the num- 
ber of men to which it refers, according to Rule 4 ■. Adjec- 
tives refer to nouns or pronouns expressed or understood, 

EXAMPLES TO PARSE. OF ADJECTIVES IN GENERAL, 

That man speaks good English. This woman writes an 
^excellent letter. These trees bear no fruit; those produce a 
plentiful crop; the former you may destroy; the latter you 
must culture. Those students study Latin: these study 
Greek. Somo people love reading. Many rich men support 
indigent people. Many beautiful flowers wither. John Mil- 
ton wrote several poems. Dr. Young was an other poetical 
writer. Few persons are inculpable* Each pupil recites Ge- 
ography. Every man helps a little. What town is the most 
populous in the world? What study is preferable? That 
man instructs which girl? What person teaches that boy ? 



TO A itNOWLBD&E OF EN&USH GkAMMAIL 6l 

That man does what? Which is the best road? What piti* 
&ble excuses many wicked people make for their sins! W T hat 
'misery the sinner must endured What mercies are extended 
to poor, frails mortal man ! I like what thou likest. Heated 
phosphorus acid emits a disagreeable smelL Water absorbs 
liquid fluoric acid-. Whatever purifies, fortifies the heart. 
Those three apples make a fine appearance-. He loves his 
first preceptor, 

QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVES, 

53. What is an adjective? 53. There are how many kinds 
t)f adjectives? 53. What are defining adjectives? 53i 
Name the chief defining adjectives. 54. What is the defi- 
nition of describing adjectives! 54, Describing adjectives 
apply to words in two ways, what are they? 54. Is there 
much difference between defining and describing adjectives? 
53. There are two kinds of numerical adjectives, what are 
they? 54. What words are called interrogates? 54. 
Are which and what, in an interrogative sentence, always 
the words on which the question rests? 54. Do nouns be- 
'come adjectives by use? 54. Do nouns in becoming adjec- 
tives, receive slight modifications of different kinds? 54. 
How are nouns distinguished from adjectives? 55. 
Are the nouns to which adjectives belong, always expressed ? 
55. The compound adjective what) is equivalent to what 
words? 55. What are secondary adjectives? 56, How are 
many secondary adjectives formed? 56. How many de- 
grees of comparison have describing adjectives? 57. What 
are they? 57. What effect has the termination ish added to 
adjectives? 57. How is the comparative degree generally 
formed? 57. How the superlative? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

57. How are Monosyllables compared 1 57. How are dissylla^ 
bles compared 1 57. Name some words that form the superlative 
by adding most to the end of them. 58. Name some that cannot 
be compared. 58. Tell wh} round, or frost-bitten cannot be com* 
pared. 58. And why all colors can be compared. 

You have now studied five parts of speech; youhav: : i\j 
four more to learn, and they are minor to those you baye 
learned; therefore^ persevere and let not seeming difficulties 
discourage you. As the last lecture Contains, what isg^ne^ 
rally styled, "the rugged eminence in grammar," I request 
you to read it again, to see and admire the ease with which 
you passed over it% 
F 



62 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 



LECTURE 6th.— OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs or contractions modify and qualify 
the meaning of verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
adverbs ; or express the manner, time, or place 
of the actions of verbs and participles, and the 
degrees of adjectives and adverbs. 

Adverbs are said to be thus named, because they are more 
frequently joined to verbs, than to any other part of speech. But 
they are compound or shortened words, made up of nouns, 
adjectives, and verbs, joined and altered, in many ways.— 
They express compendiously in one word, what would other- 
wise require two or more; as, there, for in that place: Where, 
for in what place: How, for in what mind, mood or manner. 

Adverbs also express the idea of time. Though tenses 
may be sufficient to denote the greater distinctions of time, 
yet to denote them all by the tenses, would be a perplexity 
without end. What a variety of forms must be given to 
the verb, to denote formerly, lately, just now, now, imme- 
diately ? presently, soon, hereafter, &c. 

Illustration of the adverb: — If we say the boy sits grace- 
fully, awkwardly, handsomely, neatly, or snugly, &c. ; or, 
we saw the boy sitting gracefully, awkwardly, handsomely, 
neatly or snugly, &c; all the words in italics are adverbs, 
qualifying the verb sits, or the participle sitting, because 
they express the manner of the action denoted by the verb 
and participle. Again, if we say the boy lives here, yonder, 
far off, somewhere, or any where*, these words in italicks tell 
where, or in what place, the boy lives. If we say Frederick 
loves the Holy Scriptures; and Frederick does not love the 
Holy Scriptures ; the adverb not modifies or changes ths 
meaning of the verb love. 

When adverbs (or, properly, secondary adjectives,) qualify 
adjectives, or adverbs, they generally express the degrees of 
comparison; as, more amiable, most amiable ; or, more amia- 
bly, most amiably. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

often, oftener, oftenest. 

coherently, more coherently, most coherently. 

Adverbs are generally subdivided into various arbitrary 
classes, from eleven to seventy, according to the fancy 
of the different writers. Such clasifications are entirely im- 
practicable, and only tend to bewilder without affording cer- 
tain or permanent information. The following words, are 
selected from the "fine spun" catalogues, as generally com- 
ing under our defini tion of an adverb : viz : Once, twice, thrice, 
first, secondly, lastly, finally, here, there, where, elsewhere, 
anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, therein, whither, 
hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, 
whence, thence, whithersoever, now, already, before, lately, 
heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, not, yet, hereafter, 
henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, 
immediately, straightway, oft, often, oft-times, often- times, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
always, never, again, ever, when, then, sufficiently, how much. 
how great, enough, abundantly, wisely, perhaps, perchance, 
peradventure, possibly, verily, truly, doubtless,, yea, yes, sure- 
ly, indeed, really, nay, no, not, generally, not at all, similar- 
ly, how, why, wherefore, afoot, asleep, &c, and many of 
similar formation; hereof, thereof, herein, therein, and a host 
of others, formed by a combination of prepositions with other 
words. 

This list contains but a very small number of the words 
generally called adverbs; yet I cheerfully concur in the sen- 
timent of a learned writer, "that even many of these properly 
belong to, and had better be explained as, other parts of 
speech." And those who agree in sentiment, will be enabled 
to analyze them as suggested, by reference to the Philosophic 
exposition of Adverbs. 

The words when, where, whence, whither, whenever, 
wherever, &c. and all others of the same nature, are mostly 
called adverbial conjunctions; because they both conjoin 
sentences and denote the attributes of either time or place. 

When therefore, consequently, accordingly ,&c. are joined 
to and, if, since, &c ., they are called adverbs ; but when they 
appear single, they are called conjunctions. 

The critical scholar, who thoroughly examines every prin- 
ciple^ he proceeds, will conclude that when y where, cause- 



64 AN EASY AND LUCID GUfDE 

quently } &c. are always one part of speed), and that the fore- 
going license in respect to those words, is rather superficial^ 
with which sentiment I fully concur. The class of words to 
which they properly belong, may be known by considering the 
office they perform in a sentence, contrasted with the defmi- 
nitions of the different parts of speech. 

"I am move dilligent than he. n "It is much better [thing) 
to go than to stay." More and much are generally called 
adverbs in examples like the above, but not with propriety. 
Tt is better to call them secondary adjectives, as they second- 
arily refer to a noun, which is not the office of an adverb. "It 
is difficult to make a second step without making a first." 

To make the distinction between an adjective and adverb, 
is sometimes quite difficult. The better way to distinguish 
them, is, to enosider the office the word performs in a sen- 
tence. If it describes a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective j 
if it can be placed immediately before a verb, participle, or 
adverb to qualify or modify them, it is an adverb. Most 
words ending in ly are called adverbs; (though they are 
properly secondary adjectives,) as, manly, goodly, truly, &c 
Any word or short phrase that will answer to any of these 
questions; how y when, or where, and sometimes how much, is 
an adverb; as, the little girl sings charmingly. The boy 
will soon come home. Pompey has gone somewhere. The 
students study abundantly. How does the little girl sing? 
Charmingly. When will the boy come home? Soon.— 
Where has Pompey gone? Somewhere, How much do 
the students study? Abundantly. See how nicely these 
words answer to the questions! 

Another sign given in many of the grammars, is, "The 
verb to be," or any other verb for which to be can be substitu- 
ted, without perverting trie sense, must be followed by an 
adjective, and not an adverb, 

Although these latter signs may assist children, or those 
who pass on superficially without resorting to reflection 
and judgment; yet the scholar, who critically examines defi- 
nitions, and signs, will soon find they are not infallible. 

Not at all, a few days ago, long since ? at length, in vain* 
in general, are frequently called adverbial phrases; but it is 
better to analyze the words separately, arid give each its pro- 
per name. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 
PHILOSOPHIC EXPOSITION 

OF SOME OF THE WORDS CALLED ADVERBS, 

Anywhere, in any place. 

Always, contraction for in all ways. 

Ay or yea, a verb which signifies have it, enjoy it. 

Adrift, is the past participle adrifed, adriPd, adrift, it is 
from the old Saxon drifan, adrifan, to drive. 

Ago, formerly written ygo, gan f agan, gone y agone is the 
past participle of the verb to go, it refers to gone by. 

Asunder, the Saxon participle asundren, from the verb sun- 
drian or sondrian to separate. 

Aloft, on the loft, unluft, on lyft,lyft being the Anglo-Sax- 
on word for air or clouds. 

Day, a noun, is in its primary idea, the darting or throwing 
out of the beams of light. 

Ever, an age ; ever is a noun singular or plural, to be 
parsed, by supplying such adjectives as the sense requires, 
with time, when, or how long. 

Even, is a past participle, or adjective ; evened with, equal- 
ed to. Platina is evened with, or equaled to ? a specific grav- 
ity, heavier than gold. 

Forward, foreview or prospect. 

Forth, out of doors or out from any place. 

First, forest or fore-est. 

Forever, for ages. For ever and ever, for ages and 
ages. 

Here, in this place, area, or position. 

Hitherto, is to hither or this place. 

How, in what mind, mode, mood, wise, plan, design or 
purpose. 

Indeed, in very deed. 

Last, is contracted latest; the time and thing that lags 
most behind. 

Morning, is contracted from morrow-ning. 

Morrow, is an opening, dawning or next coming day. 

Needs, need-is anciently nedes, nede-is. 

Never, is ne-ever, in no age; at no period or time. 

Now, is an adjective, and a slight modification of the word 
new. It refers to the word time understood. The new time, 
or now time. 

Nay, is contracted of the old French or Norman ne-ay or 
ne-ayes, have not, as explained under the verb yes. 

Naught, is a modern alteration of nought. 
f2 



66 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Not, is very often a secondary adjective ; as, not many, 
not good, not much. 

Night,i3 the neg-ation, noug-ht, nihility or an-nihil-ation 
of light. The "substantive night**' is the German "adverb 
not;" and under various modifications may be traced, 
through the different languages both ancient and modern. 

Noon j is non or none; the place of beginning at which 
nothing is reckoned; because the sun has made no departure 
from it, The noon time, or noon tide, is when the sun is at the 
first meridian, indicated in the practical science of astronomy 
by a cypher or nought. 

No, is an adjective, and when the noun to which it refers 
is not expressed, it is understood. Perhaps a word or two 
in relation to the use of the word no may not be improper. 
Example: Will you agree to go with me^ no; that is, we 
make no such agreement, we agree to no such thing. This 
response no, like its antagonist, yes, is only proper when the 
question is so formed as to reduce the answer required to a 
single point. Will you go to-day or to-morrow? no. As 
thus used it is not appropriate; it should be the adjective 
neither. That is, we shall neither go to-day, nor to-morrow. 
We shall go on neither of those days. These hints are 
"sufficient for the wise," to assist them in the proper use of 
no. 

Oft, often, are adjectives, at oft or often times. "He is 
often there." At often or frequent times. 

Once, one time. 

O-yes, our corrupt word of the crier, is the French impera- 
tive oyez, hear, listen. 

Perhaps, by happenings or chance. 

Quick, comes from gwick, the past participle of the Anglo- 
Saxon verb gwiccian, to vivify or give life. 

Quickly, or lively, means in a quick-like, or life-like man- 
ner ; in the manner of a creature that has life. 

Rapid4y, rapid-like, like a rapid ; a quickly or swiftly run* 
nbig place in a stream. 

Still, is the participial adjective stilled > fixed or stationed, 

Straight-way, by a straight way in a direct course. 

To-day, is this day contracted, when familiarly used. In 
expressions of particular dignity or sublimity, the correct 
scholarship is preserved. "This day thou shalt be with me 
in Paradise." 

Then, the one time, at that time. 

Till, is to while or wheeL Till always relates to time, and 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF KNGL1SH GRAMMAR. #7 

not to place. We can say with propriety till this day, but 
not till Charleston, or till Wheeling. 

Thence, from that place. 

Thither, that other, with the word place understood after, 
and to before it. 

There, is the or that area, place, or position, &c. 

To-wit, the infinitive of witan, to know, to be known. 

Where, is which or what area, place or position. 
Whither, what other, with the word place understood after, 
and to before it 

When, at what period or time. 

Whether is a defining adjective, referring alternately to the 
several propositions, but more directly to the interposed word 
thing, event, or alternative, understood. 

Whenever, at what time, (in any age.) 

Wherever, at, in, or to, what place, (at any time.) 

While, wheel, time or period in which something wheels its 
round. 

Why, formerly written qui, qua, quae, and many other 
ways, is what, with the associated words for what reason, 
from what cause, with what design. 

Yes, is a verb, ay-es, have, possess, enjoy that. 

Yester-day, is the past or gone day. 

ORDER OF PARSING, 

The order of parsing an adverb is — an ad- 
verb, and why? or it [the word called adverb] 
is a contraction of what? 

Thompson resides here. 
Here is an adverb, because it expresses the place of the 
action denoted by the verb "resides." Or, here is a contrac- 
tion of in this place, 

How does he walk 2 
How is an adverb, because it expresses the manner of the 
action denoted by the verb "does walk ." Or, how is a con- 
traction of in what manner. In is a preposition, showing the 
relation between/^ and manner. What is an interrogative 
adjective, because it is used with manner in asking a ques- 
tion, to* which it refers, according to Rule 4. Manner is a 
noun, in the objective case, governed by in 9 according to* 
Rule 3, — After the scholar has studied the preposition, lie- 
will find no difficulty, in parsing agreeably to the latter mode. 
Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. 



eg AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

The air is that very light fluid* which surrounds us every 
where. Bees^wax is doubtless a vegetable product. Arsenic 
is extremely brittle : it is the softest metaL Pure iron is ex- 
tremely ductile. Saccharine liquors principally form acetic 
acids. Usually prepared acetic acid is a well-known r plea- 
sant, yellow liquor. Pure nitric acid permanently stains the 
skin. Chlorine gas discharges vegetable colors: it burns all 
the metals, even gold. Chemists do not satisfactorily inform 
us how friction produces caloric. 

I will now give you some further explanation of the cases 
of nouns and pronouns. 

Apposition,§ in grammar, means, various 
names, words, or additional titles, appropriated 
to, and meaning the same person or thing ; as, 
Paul the Apostle ; Cicero the orator and states- 
man ; It was he. 

Rule 6. Nouns and pronouns in apposition 
must be in the same case. 

Cicero, the orator and statesman, made speeches. 

Cicei % o is a noun, because it is the name of an individual — 
third person, spoken of — singular number, it implies but one 
— nominative case, it is the active agent of the verb "made." 

Orator is a noun, a name denoting persons — third person, 
spoken of — singular number, it implies but one — nominative 
case to the verb "made," and in apposition with Cicero, ac- 
cording to Rule 6. Nouns and pronouns in apposition must 
be in the same case. — Statesman is parsed in the same way. 

The air is a very light fluid. 

Air is a noun, (Parse it in full,) — nominative case to the 
verb "is." 

Fluid is a noun, &x. — nominative case to the verb "is," 
and in apposition with air, according to Rule 6. Nouns and 
pronouns in apposition must be in the same case. 

This rule is quite obvious, for when two or more names are 
applied to the same thing, for the purpose of clearness, em- 
phasis, or to give to a person his various titles, it is evident 



*The manner in which "fluid, product, metal," &c. are parsed, 
may be seen on this page. 

k That is, meaning the same thing in the sentence in which tbe 
words are used. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 

these words, whether one or more, should stand in the same 
relation toother words in a sentence. They are agents or 
objects ; according to the sense in which they are understood v 
with reference to the verbal action. And when nouns are in 
apposition they do not form a plurah as, "Brethren, my hearts 
desire and prayer to God for Israel is, that they might be 
saved." 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, 

When a direct address is made, the noun or 
pronoun addressed or spoken to, is in the nomi- 
native case independent ; as, "Religion, thou art 
a soother of the human heart," Boys, we love 
you. 

Here Religion and Boys, have no connexion of agreement 
or government with the sentence. They merely show to 
whom or what the speaker is directing his discourse. And 
in parsing, you will say they are in the nominative case, in- 
dependent; i. e. independent of any verb. 

Religion, thou art a soother of the human breast. 

Religion is a noun, because it is the name of a thing — 
second person, spoken to — Nominative case in dependent, be- 
cause it is directly addressed, and has no verb to agree with 
it, according to Rule 7. When a direct address is made, the 
person or thing spoken to> is in the nominative case indepen- 
dent. 

NOTE . — When a pronoun of the second person is in apposition 
with the noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "Ye men of 
piety, we lore you." 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
in a detached phrase, without any verb to agree 
with it, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, he 
being afflicted f we sent for a physician. 

Here the pronoun he is placed before a participle, and has 
no verb to agree with it, and is, of course, in the nominative 
case absolute, according to Rule 8, This phrase does not 
amount to an affirmation, but expresses a condition of things,. 
in the fewest words, as standing in some kind of connexion 
with the assertion, contained in the other part of the sentence* 
Therefore 3 the pronoun he is not connected with a verb* 



70 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case indepen- 
dent, is always in the second person ; but a noun or pronoun in the 
nominative case absolute, may be of the first or third person; as^ 
Flour being good, we will buy a large quantity ; / being admitted, 
he left the room. 

2. Titles, labels, or notes, where the name, without assertion 
gives the idea required, are in the nominative case absolute. For 
instance ; "Creek Grammar." These words, placed on the back 
of a book, convey a distinct idea, as well as if it was asserted, that 
the thing so marked, is a book known by that title. 

I will now give you some examples to illustrate these sev- 
eral cases of nouns. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

He is the man. George, thou lovest thy Bible. John P. 
Curran, the statesman, made eloquent speeches. Figs being 
abundant, we purchased a large quantity. Boys, you study 
finely. He being sorely afflicted, a potent prescription is ne- 
cessary. Henrietta, thou makest fine progress. Judas, a 
traitor, betrayed his Lord. 

QUESTIONS ON THE AOVEBS AND THE CASES OF NOUNS. 

62. What are adverbs or contractions? 62. They am 
principally made up, of what parts of speech? 63. What is 
said of when, where, &c? 63. What is said about therefore, 
consequently, and accordingly? 64. What is the best rule 
to distinguish an adverb from an adjective ? 67. What is the 
order of parsing an adverb * 68. What is apposition in gram- 
mar? 68. What rule applies in parsing nouns and pronouns 
in apposition? 69. What rule applies in parsing nouns and 
pronouns, in the nominative case independent? 69. In what 
situation are nouns and pronouns called the nominative case 
absolute? 69. What rule applies in parsing nouns and pro- 
nouns in the nominative ease absolute? 

NOTE. The questions on the philosophic exposition of adverbs 
may be asked, without here recapitulating them, as they are indi- 
vidually treated . 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 71 



IiECTURE 7th.— of prepositions. 

Prepositions serve to show the relation between 
nouns and pronouns, and to connect words. 

The term preposition is derived from the Latin words 
pre and pono: pre which signifies before, and pono to place. 
They are so called, because they are generally placed before 
the nouns and pronouns which are governed by them in the 
objective case. 

Words which show the relative situation of two things are 
prepositions; as, William travelled by Boston, through New 
York, tovjards Washington. Here by, through, and towards, 
• show the relative situation of their respective objects, (Bos- 
ton, New York, and Washington,) to William. 

If we say Emily's book lies on the table: on shows the re- 
lation existing between her book and the table, or the rela* 
tive position each has in respect to the other. Prepositions 
also tell where a thing is,- as, "The pear is on the ground 
under the tree." 

The following examples will show how they connect the 
words that compose the sentence in which they are situated. 
The man writes a pen. The girl walks meet- 
ing. The boys play a ball. My horse is the 

stable. The boatman went the river. 

In each of these expressions, there is either a total want of 
connexion, or such a connexion as produces either falsehood 
or nonsense. But fill up each of the vacancies in their order, 
with the prepositions, with, to, with, in, and across, and we 
immediately perceive the connexion to be perfect, and the 
sense complete; as, the man writes with a pen. The girl 
walks to meeting, &c. &c 

This clearly shows the use and necessity of prepositions 
as connectives, and that they do not only connect the words, 
of which they show the relation, but also the words in the 
sentence, or the part of sentence, in which they are situated. 
For there would be no sense conveyed by saying, "the man 
with a pen," or "the girl to meeting." 

The following list contains the principal prepositions, al- 
phabetically arranged. In presenting the scholar with lists 
of words, which generally belong to certain classes, he should 



72 



AN £A$Y AND LUCID GUIDE 



Understand they are given as a kind of prompter, not as be & 
ing invariable, or containing all the words which may prop* 
*erly belong to that part of speech. 



A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



A. 


above 


or beside; 


3 near 


upon 


•at 


according 


to m 


O, 


T, 


after 


B. 


down 


of 


to 


around 


fcy 


F, 


out of 


through 


about 


below 


for 


over 


touching 


amidst 


beteewn 


from 


off 


towards 


or amid 


betwixt 


I. 


OR 


throughout 


amongst 


beneath 


in 


over against W. 


or among 


beyond 


into 


u. 


with 


against 


before 


instead of 


under 


within 


across 


behind 


N. 


up 


without 


athwart 


beside 


notwithstari 


rding 





We have now three parts of speech which govern nouns 
and pronouns in the objective case; viz: verbs, participles^ 
and prepositions. And it is important for you to remember, 
that when a noun or pronoun is the object of a verb or particle 
pie, it is the object of an action; and when it is governed by 
a preposition, it is the object of a relation* 

"Verbs are often compounded of a verb and preposition* 
and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb; as, to 
invest, to uphold, to undraw, to forgive) &c. The prepo* 
sition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separate* 
ly from it; as, "to lift a thing up^ But in this situation it 
equally affects the verb, and gives it a new meaning. In ei- 
ther situation it may be considered a part of the verb.'" 

Some eminent grammarians analyze the preposition sepa- 
rately from the verb, as in the following example : I request* 
ed the man who is making my shoes, to put on a good polish. 
They bring as a plausible argument in support of their posi* 
tion, "that every person of ordinary sense understands, the 
workman was to put the good polish on my shoes, without the 
objective word being expressed." To this mode perhaps a 
preference is to be given. 

Note. Nouns and pronouns are frequently governed by 
prepositions understood ; as, The man gave Emily a present. 
That is, the man gave to Emily a present. Philip read yes* 
terday : — on or during yesterday* Politeness gives a man 
an enviable esteem in company :~^gives to aman 5 &c. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. t3 
ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a preposition, is— a prep* 
osition, and why? What relation and connex-^ 
ion does it show? 

The man writes with a pen. 

With is a preposition, a word which shows the relation 
between man and pen—it also connects the words of which 
the sentence is composed. 

Pen is a noun, the name of a thing—third person, spoken 
of — singular number, it represents but one — ana in the objec- 
tive case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep- 
osition "with," and governed by it, according to Rule 3d. 
Verbs, participles, and prepositions govern the objective 
case. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

Atmospheric air is indispensable in all the common pro- 
cesses of combustion. The atmosphere extends several 
miles above the surface of the earth. It is this great, exten- 
sion of the atmosphere' which [extension] occasions its 
weight; the pressure of such a weight, produces many im- 
portant effects in the economy of nature. Atmospheric air 
chiefly preserves animal heat. The lungs, which imbibe the 
oxygen gas from the air, impart it to the blood; the hlood, in 
its circulation, gives out the caloric to every part of the body^ 
A man generally consumes about thirty-two troy* ounces 
of oxygen gas in twenty-four hours. An inch square col- 
umn of atmospheric air, weighs about fifteen pounds. 

PHILOSOPHIC EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

Be-fore, behind, below, beside, beside?, beneath, are 
formed by combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, 
hind, low, side, neath. Neath— -Saxon neothan, neothe; it 
means the same thing as nadir. 

Beyond, be passed, when I say beyond a place, it means 
be passed that place. 

Among, is the past participle of gamaengan, to mingle. 

In, comes from the Gothic noun inna, the interior of the 
body ; a cave> a cell. 

Through 6t thorough, is the Gothic substantive dauro or 
the Teiitonick thuruh. It nleans passage, gate, door. 



♦What is ffifcant by troy ounces is, 12 dunces to the portrid. 
G 



74 AN EASY AND LUCID &MD£ 

Notirithstanding, not-stand-ing-with — not-with-standing$ 
i. e. not-standing-with the mud, thou goest to school. 
Bij of he, is the Saxon imperative byth- % or beon, to be. 
Of is a fragment of the Gothic and Saxon noun afora-, 
consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the son of 
(offspring) David." Qf or off in its modern acceptation 
signifies disjoined, sundered-; a piece of [off] the loaf, is a 
piece disjoined or separated from the loaf. 

The fragrance 6f& rose. This expression implies the con* 
nexion of the fragrance with the rose^ but this fragrance 
could not be mentioned, or conceived, in distinction from 
ihe rose, if particles of the rose, in factj or in idea, had not 
come in contact with the olfactory nerve. 

From, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon noun 
frum, beginning, source, author. "He came from [begin- 
ning] Rochester." 

Over, is the comparative degree of the participial adjec- 
tive of or off, spelled as it is pronounced, with the letter^/*, 
softened into v. The thing which is over some thing else, 
is off-cr, more distant, from the center of gravity, the po- 
sition of the speaker, or some other beginning place. * 

Up, upper, upmost, are adjectives in the three degrees of 
comparison, as much as high, higher, highest^ and the differ* 
encein their meaning is very slight. So we have in, inner) 
inmost ; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost. 

Prepositions, like other adjectives, are compared by fc 
great number of secondary adjectives, as, very far above, 
or beyond; directly against; entirely through, exactly oter, 
&c. &c. 

In respect to above, we can never properly use it, with- 
out speaking of some thing as being above some thing else, 
"whether it is barely above the ground," or "above these 
heavens to us invisible, or dimly seen." 

In using prepositions, we should keep in mind that there 
must be two sides to a relation. The words "about" and 
"after" are always prepositions, whether the objective words 
are expressed or not, for they have but tme meaning, 
and one application. "He rides about." "That is, 
about the ^country, town, or his farm, &c." Some thing 
must be placed after or farther aft, than some thing else. 
No matter, whether that some thing denotes position^ mo- 
tion or time. 

"The adjective or preposition like, has caused much diffi- 
culty in parsing, for want of a proper explanation of it. Ti» 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, «J5 

noun like in its primary application is body. In its first ex- 
tension, it is image, resemblance, picture, representation. 
^Every like is not the same" "We never shall look on his 
like again." The verb to like, or to liken, is to resemble 
one thing to an other, or to bring it into conformity and 
similitude to it. Whatever is like another, is likened to it, 
or it would not be like it. It has an object before it, and 
another object after it; and expresses the relation of like- 
ness or resemblance between them; for which reason it may 
with propriety be called a preposition. This preposition is 
preceded by an objective word, depending on a verb, and 
followed by another objective word, because in the same 
grammatical relation. This explains the secret of an objec- 
ts re case, after a preposition." 

Near, is the participle neared. 

On, is joined. 

Through is past, with the associated idea of having pas^ 
sed, by traversing, or perforation. 

For and force according to Cakdell, are modifications 
of the same word, and their collateral branches are the rca* 
son, power, or impelling cause; where for an effect takes 
place, is the accumulation of knowledge, skill, vigor, life or 
activity, in which the action has its spring. For, in its mod- 
ern application, is very diversified; I have seen it used in 
twenty-two different meanings, and it is probable it may be 
in twice as many. 

The noun worthy is generally a source of difficulty. Iri 
common style it drops its associated words, ^The horse is 
worth one hundred dollars," Of the worth of one hundred 
dollars, Of coming before and after, makes the expression 
too clumsy, for repetition in familiar use. There is nogrea,t 
impropriety in calling it a preposition, in sentences like the 
given one. 

QUESTIONS QN THE PREPOSITIONS. 

71. What is a preposition? 71. Why is a preposition thus 
named? 71. From what Latin words is it derived? 71, 
Are all words that show the relative situation between two 
things prepositions? 71. Show how prepositions connect 
the words that compose the sentence in which they are situa- 
ted. 71, Explain how they show the relation between words. 
72. Name the list of prepositions. 71, Explain how a prep- 
osition 'tells where a thing is. 72, When a noun or pronoun, 
in governed by a preposition, what is it the object of? 7& 



76 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

When a noun or pronoun is governed by a verb or participle,, 
what is it the object of? 72. When verbs are compounded 
of a verb and preposition, what kind of verbs are they called t> 
72. Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition 
understood? 72. Give examples. 73. What i& the order 
of parsing a preposition? 1 72. Name the three parts of 
speech which govern nouns and pronouns, in the objective 
case. 73. What rule applies in parsing a noun or pronoun 
in the objective case, governed by a preposition? 

Note.— The questions on the philosophic remarks may also be 
asked at the discretion of the teacher. To the private learner, I 
would suggest the propriety of not committing them to memory j 
the first time going through the book. 



LECTURE Stilt— of oornvrnTiom* 

Conjunctions are med to connect .sentences* 

members of sentences, or words, 

The term conjunction comes from the Latin words con and 
jitngo: con, which signifies together; and jungo, to join. 

It is necessary, before I can fully explain the nature and 
importance of the conjunction, that you should know, what 
is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound 
sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words fornix 
ing complete sense, 

A simple sentence contains but one nomina^ 
tive or agent, and one verb, which agrees with 
that nominative ; as, apples grow on trees, 

A simple sentence sometimes contains several parts of 
speech, and is often longer than many compound sentences. 
Yef, if the sentence contains but one nominative, and one 
verb, which agrees with, that nominative^ it is, called a sinv. 
pie sentence* 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

A compound sentence is composed of two on 
more simple sentences connected together; as* 
apples grow in orchards, and men gather them. 

Barbarous nations, ignorant people, and children, general- 
ly speak in short, detached sentences. Hence conjunctions, 
onlv belong to language in its refined state. After express- 
ing one thought, we frequently wish to add another, or sev- 
eral others, which are closely connected with the first thought., 
This is generally effected by the use of the conjunction; as,. 
in the above example, which, without the conjunction, is two* 
iimple sentences. Apples grow in orchards. Men gather 
them. The men gather apples and peaches. That is, they 
gather apples add peaches. This would also be two simple 
sentences without the conjunction; as, The men gather ap- 
ples. The men gather peaches. This shows that the distin- 
guishing use of conjunctions, is, to save the repetition of 
words. 

The use of the conjunction may be more fully shown, by 
the following examples of simple sentences-, and members of 
sentences, which have no relation to each other until they are 

connected by conjunctions. He is older I am. She 

can improve she pleases. He has talents opportu- 
nities to improve them, — — friends desirous he should 

make a figure. Here is perceived the want of conjunctions. 
But fill up the blanks with the. following conjunctions, in their 
order, than, if ^ and, and, and that, and the importance of this 
part of speech will be clearly seen. 

The following list contains the principal words 
which are used as conjunctions; viz.. And, if, for,. 
since* because, therefore, wherefore, but, or, noiy 
as, than, lest, though, unless, either,, neither, yet, 
nevertheless, whether, whereas, as well as. 

There are other words, besides those given in the list, which are 
generally called conjunctions: though maojp of these may, with 
propriety, be called by other names, which will easily be seen by 
reference to the philosophic exposition- of them. 

The conjunction or connecting adjective axd,. has acqui- 
red a very convenient application in practice. It is a con* 
tracted participle signifying added; as, two and three make 
fire; or, two added three make five.^AND differs- from all 
other connective terms, in requiring the words which it con- 
joins, to be taken as an aggregate p&jraL This; aggregate 
©2 



7$ AX" EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

plural requires verbs, nouns, and pronouns, to agree with in? 
in the plural number, the same as a plural noun. And y con- 
nects words, but it is not a rule that "it connects sentences 
so as out of two or more to make but one.'* The sentence,,, 
."two and three make five,'* cannot be analysed by saying 
two make five,, and three make five. Charcoal, sulphur, and 
nitre,, make gunpowder,. This sentence cannot be resolved 
into three sentences, because, neither of the articles alone 
makes gunpowder. Nouns and pronouns connected by any 
other connective,, are to be separately considered in their re- 
lations, and dependances,. upon other words in a sentence.. 
That is, they must have verbs,, nouns, and pronouns, agree- 
ing with each of them, or with one or the other of them, sepa- 
rately and singly; as, "I saw him or her;"" that is, I saw one 
of the two. "He or his brother resides in London," that is^ 
cither he resides in London, or his brother resides in London. 
"Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear 
to only unite words ; as, "Wisdom or folly governs us ." This 
expression contains two sentences, viz. wisdom governs us, 
or folly governs us. 

Conjunctions are generally divided into two sorts, Copu- 
lative and Disjunctive. Some grammarians have divided 
them into thirty-nine sorts. 

1. The copulative conjunctions serve to connect and con- 
tinue a sentence, by joining on a member which expresses 
an addition, supposition, or cause; as,. "Two and three are 
five."' "I will go if he will accompany me." Common list of 
the copulative conjunctions: And, if, that, both, then, since, 
for, because,, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

2. The disjunctive conjunctions serve to connect and con- 
tinue a sentence, by joining on a member which expresses 
opposition of meaning; as, "they came with her, tathey went 
away without her." Common list of the disjunctive conjunc- 
tions: But, or, nor, as, than, less, though, unless, either, nei- 
ther, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, 
whereas, as well as. 

Several of these words are never conjunctions,, and the 
candid examiner will find that the distinction of copulative 
and disjunctive, is too precarious to be entitled to much con- 
fidence. The idea, I suppose, intended to be conveyed by 
this distinction is, that the copulative not only join the words 
of the sentence, but also the sense or meaning; and the dis- 
junctive join the words, but disjoin the sense. Let us pre- 
mise two questions, and then examine, m a practical way^tte 
distinction. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7$ 

1. How can a word at the same time join words, both in a 
joining and disjoining way 1 

2. When the two junctive words, dis and con, meet in the 
same broken place,, how is the business of joining and dis- 
joining to be regulated between them? 

Examples of the opposition in meaning: "They came with 
her but they went away without her." "They came with her 
and they went away without her," is just as good English. 

"John is good and Peter is bad." 5 * 

"John is good but Peter is equally so." v 

"Me he restored unto mine office, and him he hanged." 

Chief butler to Pharaoh. 

Rhetoric or oratory is the art of speaking justly, &,c. 

Do rhetoric and oratory express- opposition of meaning, as 
here used? 

He and I may go. He as well as I may go. 

It seems unnecessary to enumerate more examples, as the 
pupil may see one sort can be substituted for the other, if re- 
quired, in a great portion of the examples in use. 

"The same word is said to be occasionally employed as a 
conjunction, an adverb, or preposition. 'I submitted, for it 
was in vain to resist ? for, in this sentence, is a conjunction. 
But in the following it is a preposition. "He contended/or 
victory." The only reason, I suppose, why for is called a 
conjunction in the first example, is, because the objective case 
is so obviously understood, that it is not necessary to express 
it. I submitted, for the impelling cause it was in vain to re- 
sist. Perhaps it may be urged it is a conjunction, because 
it connects the members of a compound sentence ; this may 
be answered, by recollecting prepositions frequently connect 
the members of a sentence. "He will repent before he dies; 
Stand before me; Why did you not return before? In the 
first of these examples, before is an adverb, and in the last 
two> prepositions." — He will repent before the day or time he 
dies. Why did he not return before this or that time ? This 
certainly shows that before is a preposition in all three of the 
given examples.. 

By these examples, and many others, it may be seen, that 
the preposition and conjunction, as connectives, are nearly 
allied, for they both often only connect words. The princi- 
pal difference is, that the preposition always requires an ob- 
jective case,, while the conjunction, only shows the relation o£ 
the words it unites to other parts of the sentence.. 



80 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE* 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a conjunction is — a con-, 
junction, and why? 

Temperance and exercise are the best prescriptions to pro* 
mote health. 

And is a conjunction,, because it connects "temperance and 
exercise ." 

Temperance is a noun> the name of a things-third person, 
spoken of — singular number, it implies but one— it is one of 
the nominatives to the verb "are." 

Exercise is a noun, the name of a thing— third person, 
spoken of — singular number, it implies but one — together 
with te mperance, forms the plural nominative case to the verb 
"are." 

Are is a verb, &c. — third person, plural number, because 
"temperance and exercise" are^with which it agrees, accordr 
ing to Rule 9.. Two or more nouns in the singular number, 
united by and y must have verbs, nouns^ and pronouns agree- 
ing with them in the plural. 

Prescriptions is a noun/ (parse it in full,) nominative caso 
to the verb "are," and in apposition with "temperance and 
exercise," according to Rule 6., Nouns and pronouns in ap- 
position must be in the same case. 

Charles or Henry writes neatly. 

Or is a conjunction, because it connects "Charles and Hen- 
ry," and shows that either the one or the other, (not both) ig 
agent of the verb writes. 

Writes is a verb, which signifies action — third person,, sin- 
gular number,, agreeing with either Charles or Henry, accord- 
ing to Rule 10. Two or more nouns in the singular number, 
united by or or nor, must have verbs, nouns, and pronoun* 
agreeing with them in the singular number. 

The use of the last two rules will be seen by the following 
examples. Emily and Caroline, who study their books, mako 
fine progress. Here, Emily and Caroline, connected by and 9 
are taken as an aggregate plural; the verb make is plural, be- 
cause it expresses the action of both Emily and Caroline. 
The pronouns who and their, and the noun books are also 
plural,. agreeing with Emily and Caroline,, according to RuIg 
9. The. verb study is plural, agreeing' with who, according 
to Rule J.— JBut connect these two* words by or, and we per- 
ceive a great difference in the meaning: Emily or Carolino 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, gl 

who studies her book makes fine progress. This expres- 
sion does not imply that they both study,, but that one or the 
other studies. Therefore, makes is singular, because it ex-. 
presses the action of either Emily or Caroline, and not of 
both. Her and book are also singular,, agreeing with either 
Emily or Caroline, according to Rule 10. The verb studies 
is singular, agreeing with who, according to Rule 1. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

The sun is the chief fountain which jfurnishes the earth 
with a regular supply of heat, and renders it capable of sup- 
porting the animal and vegetable creations. Water and at- 
mospheric air, are the natural food of plants. Water is a 
compound, consisting of hydrogen and oxygen. Caloric is 
the name given by modern chemists to fire, or the matter of 
heat. Caloric is every where indispensable to the existence 
of man and beast. Platina is the heaviest of all the metals, 
and has neither taste nor smell; it is nearly as hard as pure 
iron, and is susceptible of a fine polish. Eliza and Lydia 
who obey their teacher, make great improvement. Jacob or 
William who loves his book improves rapidly. 

NOTES, 
i . When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of differen t 
persons, are connected by or, or nor, the verb must agree with that 
which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thau or I am in fault."— It 
wouldcertainiy be better to give each nominative a verb, and gay ; 
Thou art to blame, or I am to blame. 

2. When or, or nor comes between a singular noun or pronoun, 
and a plural one, the verb should agree with the plural noun or 
pronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, 
"Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." U I or they 
were offended by him." — Constructions like these should general- 
ly be avoided. 

3. Pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connectsentences; 
as, "Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his com- 
mandments ." 

4. Adjectives also connect sentences; as, Tribulation worketh 
patience; which worketh, &c. 

The difference between and and ivhich, as conjunctive words, is 
this — and connects in a general manner, and which with identical 
limitation. 

"Tribulation worketh patience, and patience experience:" that 
is, patience, in general, worketh experience. ^Tribulation work- 
eth patience, which worketh experience," &c. The meaning of- 
this is, that the same or identical patience, which tribulation produ- 
ces, worketh experience. — That may also be substituted in most 
cases for which. 

5. Frequently when a^ preposition "or conjunction begins a sen- 



82 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

tence,the members of that sentence, are transposed ; as, ik Jf\ forget 
thee O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning." Trans- 
posed ;0 Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning if I forget 
ihee. "In Judah God is known ; his name is great in Israel." Trans- 
posed : God is known in Judah, his name is great in Israel . — In the 
Scriptures, in the beginning of a sentence, conjunctions more fre- 
quently show the relations between the sentences in the general 
tenor of the chapter, than of any particular paragraphs. 

PHILOSOPHIC EXPOSITION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

But, comes from the Saxon word beou-utan to be out. 
"All were well but [be-out, leave-out] the stranger." 

And, aned, ari*d, and, is the past participle of ananad, to 
add, to join. .A, an, owe, or arte, all come from the same verb, 
and point out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. And also 
refers to the thing that is joined to, or made one with, some 
other person or thing mentioned. 

Though, is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafigan, to 
allow. 

Yet, ofgetan, to get. Yet is simply get ; ancient g, is our 
modern y. "Though he slay me, yet I will trust in him; i.e. 
grant, or allow (the fact) he slay me, get or retain (the oppo- 
site fact) I will trust in him. 

Nor, is a contraction of we or. Ne, is a contraction of not, 
and or of other \ Nor is not otherwise ; not in the other way 
or manner. 

Else is the imperative of alesan, unless, onlesan, and lest 
the past participle of lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, 
loosen, set free* "He will be punished, unless he repent ;* 
•^-i. e, unless, release, give up (the fact) he repents, he will 
be punished, 

Because^be-Q&use, is a compound of the verb be, ancl 
the noun cause. It retains the meaning of both ; as, ^1 believe 
the maxim, because I know it to be ; i, e, the cause of my be- 
lief, be, or is, I know it to be true." 

If, (formerly written gif, give, gin,) is the imperative of 
the Anglo-Saxon gif an, to give. Illustration :-— "I will go if 
he wiil accompany me;" i, e, he will accompany me, give, 
grant, [the fact] I will go. 

That is the past participle ofihean, to take, get, assume, 

-As signifies this, the, that, what, the same, these, the speci- 
fied thing, fact, action, or circumstance. Thus; "Such men 
as Cesar was :" that or the same Cesar was. He bejieves 
as the teacher taught; i, e, he believes what the telpher 
laught, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. S3 

$o, Gothic sa, so; Saxon siva; as, those^that the said or 
certified thing understood* 

As, and so-, are defining adjectives^ referring to a noun ex* 
pressed or understood. 

Also, means all and so; all the same$ that stated or iden^ 
tified thing or fact. It may be parsed like as and so above. 

Since, from syn as*, seen as, seen that, this fact, that time, 
being seen. 

Thaw, means the an*, the one$ that one-. "This apple is 
better than an orange.'" That owe orange, this apple is bet' 
ter, 

QUESTIONS ON THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

76. What are conjunctions? 76. From what words is the 
term conjunction derived? 76. What is a sentence? 76. 
What is a simple sentence? 77. What is a compound sen- 
tence? 77. Repeat the list of conjunctions. 79. How are 
conjunctions and prepositions nearly allied in their nature? 
80. What is the order of parsing a conjunction? 78. Con- 
junctions are generally divided into how many sorts ? 78. Is 
there much confidence to be placed in this division? 79* 
Are after and before, always prepositions? 80. What rule 
applies in parsing a verb, agreeing with two or more nouns 
singular, connected by andl 80. What rule when the nouns 
are connected by or or nort 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

81. When singular pronouns oF different persons are connected 
bf or, or nor, as nominatives to a verb, with which should the verb 
agree? 81 . When a verb has nominatives of the singular and 
plural number, connected by or, or nor, with which should tho 
verb agree? 81. Do pronouns as well as conjunctions connect 
sentences? 81. Give examples. 81. Explain the difference be- 
tween and and which as connectives. 81. When prepositions and 
conjunctions begin a sentence, are its members transposed? 82. 
"When its members are not transposed, and they begin a sentence, 
what relation do they show? 



OF INTERJECTION. 

Interjections are words, or indistinct utter- 
ances, which express the sudden emotions of 
the speaker; as, Alas ! am I to die? O death ! 
where is thy sting.? 



g4 A* EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

The sounds, called interjections, which are thrown into a 
sentence without connexion, or rule, are not so much the 
signs of thought, as of feeling. Almost any word may be 
used as an interjection; but when thus employed, it is not 
the representative of a distinct idea ; for any word capable of 
being used and understood, with a definite form and meanings 
must assume its proper dependance in construction, and 
according to that meanings cease to be an interjection.— 
They who wish to speak often or rather to make noises when 
they have no useful information to communicate, are apt to 
use words very freely in this way, such as, la, la me, my, O 
my, O dear, dear me, wonderful, astonishing, surprising, and 
the like. 

The following is a list of some of the interjections; viz: O! 
Oh ! alas ! pish ! tush ! heigh ! really ! strange ! hem ! ho ! halloo ! 
fob ! fy ! fudge ! away ! lo! behold ! hark ! hush ! hist ! welcome ! 
hail ! all hail ! — Interjections not in this list, may generally be 
known by their being followed with an exclamation point. 

Note. — We frequently meet with what some call an interject 
live phrase ; such as, Away with him ! Ungrateful wretch ! Im- 
pudence of hope! 

ORDER OF PARSING* 

The order of parsing an interjection is-— an in- 
terjection, and why? 

O thou monster sin! 
Ois an interjection, a word or utterance used to express 
some passion or emotion of the speaker. 

PHILOSOPHIC EXPOSITION OF INrEKJECTIQNS. 

The term interjection is derived from the Latin words in- 
ter and jacio, which signify to throw between. 

Pish and pshaw are the Anglo-Saxon paec paecca; and 
are equivalent to trumpery! i.e. trumperie, from tromper. 

Fy, or fie is the imperative, foe, the past tense, and/bA or 
faugh, the past participle of the Saxon verb fian, to hate. 

Zo, is the imperative look. 

Halt, is the imperative of healden, to hold, 

Farewell, fare-well, is a compound offararij to go, and 
the adverb well. It means to go well. 

Welcome, well-come, signifies, it is well that you hate 
come. 

Adieu, comes from the French a Dieu, to Gad* meaning 
I commend you to Gocf. 



*T6 A KNDWLED^fe OF ^ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

A general elucidation of all theiparts of speech has now 
'been given. Before entering upon the moods and tenses, 
a careful, not superficial, reperusal of all the Lectures from 
'Lecture 2d., will be advisable. Parse all the examples ac- 
cording to the order, and answer all the questions. When 
this is consummated r you will be prepared to commence the 
moods and tenses. 



iLECtURE 9th.— of the mooi5s and tenses. 

Mood is the difference in the manner of ex- 
pressing actions, in fespect to the nominatives, 
agents, or causes by fahich the actions are pro- 
duced. 

There are three moods, the indicative or as- 
sertative; the imperative or commanding; and 
t he infinitive or unlimited, These take their 
names from the leading idea, but are subject to 
many secondary modifications. 

These tnoo^s are divided by then* personal relation to 
their actors. This relation makes them perfectly distinct 
from each other, and, under one or the other, every verbal ac- 
tion is to be expressed. 

The indicative mood is used to tissert, deny, 
or interrogate, and has one direct personal re- 
lation to the agent or nominative ; and that agent 
or nominative may be of the first, second, or 
third person ; as, J write, thou \vritest, George 
writes. 

The indicative mood or statement may be affirmative,- or 
negative, stippositive, or interrogative; but in either case, it 
k equally the single personal relation to the agent or norm- 
H 



86 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

native. This difference does not vary or alter the character 
of !he verb; but is a mere question of fact. 

The imperative mood expresses the will of a 
speaker or first person, addressed to the agency 
of a second person, to do or not to do an action ; 
and its agent or nominative, is always of the se- 
cond person, and mostly understood ; as, bring 
me a chair ; correct that error. 

"Whether the imperative mood is used in authoritative 
command, in Jivmble supplication, or in fervent request, de- 
pends on the countless relative conditions in which men may 
stand with reference to each other. As no dividing line can 
be made between these minor circumstances, they cannot be 
made the basis of any consistent classification. 

"Full out this javelin, and let me bleed. —Epaminondas 
to his attendants. 

"Who can say whsther this is the dying man^s i-cqvcst to 
his friends, to relieve him from excruciating pain, or the last 
command of the military chieftain to his subalterns?" 

^Bear witness for me to my countrymen that I die like a 
brave man."- — Col. Hale. 

A verb in the imperative mood, never varies to agree with 
cither a singular or plural agent. It may generally be known 
by its agreeing with thou, ye or you, understood. When 
the nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the 
verb,* as, rejoice ye, come thou. 

The infinitive mood expresses a thing in an 
unlimited manner, having no direct connexion 
with a personal actor; but grows out of some 
stated condition of things; as, "the fire is kindled 
to warm the room." 

Temperance societies are formed to promote temperance* 
This expression does not import that any particular actor 
promotes temperance; but that temperance societies being 
formed, the consequent action, to promote temperance, grows 
out of that pre-existing circumstance. This is generally the 
nature of the infinitive mood, though, by the inverted or con- 
tracted forms of expression, this appearance or characteris- 
tic is some times considerably disguised ,* yet that does not 
change its real character. It is not absolutely requisite that 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

those who are said to perform an action, should be the direct 
actors. It is sufficient that they should cause things to be 
done, which, without such causing, would not take place; as, 
"the post master general established a post office in Louisiana. 
He sent a written order which required it to be done." 

As many grammarians do not refer the government of 
the infinitive mood* to any particular word, or words, and as 
its government, at least,, is very precarious, if not entirely 
doubtful,, as well as very perplexing to the student, we shall 
apply no rule in parsing it, except to those, which have not 
the sign to+ prefixed. 

To is the sign of the infinitive mood, except before the fol- 
lowing verbs, and their participles, which, on account oftheir 
frequent use, drop the word to, before the succeeding verb in 
the infinitive: Bid, can,, do y dare, feel, hear y hdp, make, need,. 
and see. 

TENSE OR TIME. 

Tense denotes the verbal forms of expression 
to distinguish the different periods of time. 

There are three grand or primary divisions of time, called 
tenses; the past, present^ and future, These three, and the 
participles, are so combined, that they make six verbal forms 
of expression, which generally express nice shades of differ- 
ence, in relation to the time of concomitant actions. These 
six verbal forms are called the present, the imperfect, the 
perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses.. 
As several of these names are not very appropriate; and as the 
term , form of tense, will better suit the arrangement of the 
4; Parsing Key," that name will be used. 

To give a scientific definition of more than three tenses, is 
very difficult; therefore, the student, for the definition of the 
six, must make considerable allowance for exceptions. By 
exercising his judgment,. upon the meaning of sentences in re- 
lation to time, he will generally be enabled to apply the tense 
correctly. 

The first form or present tense denotes a pres- 
ent action or condition ; as, Thomas studies ; 
the book is printed. 

Note. — We also use the present tense in speaking of actions 
which have occasional intermissions ; as, Johnson teaches school ; ; 
be walks out every evening. 



88 AN EA&Y; AND LUGID GUIDE 

Thesecoiid form, of tense (generally called 
imperfect) represents pa^t actions completed ami 
finished;; qi$,. T^QIxias studied geography last 



year 



The action, denated-by the verb studied is, eatitely com- 
pleted and finished;. therefore,, this, tense,, instead of being 
imperfecta is strictly perfect And to argue that it is imper- 
fect, because it dpes.not precisely define the time of the com- 
pletion of the action, is no just reason for the propriety of the 
name • for not one of the six forms, except the first, defines 
the time more than Xq be past or fmxre, without the correl^. 
live association of other words.. Then, Jf that, is to be con- 
sidered the reason, for the name, imperfect, all the others, ex- 
cept the present, should be so called, for a similar reasop. 

The third form (called perfect) represents 
past actions, and conveys an allusion to the pres- 
ent time for th^ir completion; as % Thomas lias 
studied geography, 

The fourth form (called pluperfect) represents 
a past action which was completed before some 
other past action specified in the sentence; as, 
Thomas had studied geography before Emily 
eommencedit 

The fifth form (called first future) denotes fu r 
fure actions ; as Thomas will study geography. 

The sixth form (called second future) denotes 
a future action which will be completed before 
some other future auction ox event; as, Thomas 
7vill have studied geography before Emily com* 
mences it. 

Note.— Our philosophic grammarians say, this form of tense "is 
a modern invention, artificial, inelegant, and little used. See re- 
marks, in the philosophic exposition of n^oods and tenses." 

^ The following verbs, which express the mor 
lives, conditions, and obligations of action, are 
generally combined with other verbs in forming 
the compound tenses of the several moods: May*, 
San, must, might, could, would, should, and shall : 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $9 

do, be, have, and will, are sometimes used in this 
way, and sometimes singly. 

Most grammarians call the verbs named above, "auxilia- 
ries." Others think that name very inappropriate, because, 
"the meanings and actions they express are very important 
and significant. Im English they come before those called 
principals. -r— These ( auxiliaries v are therefore first in order. — 
They express the actions- which are the efficient causes of 
those denoted by the following verbs:, consequently they are 
philosophically first in importance/' 

SIGTSS OF THE TENSES. 

The present tense in the indicative mood is the 
first form of the verb ; as, conquer, support 

Ed— second form or imperfect tense of regu- 
lar verbs ; as, conquered, supported. 

Have — the third form or perfect tense; as, 
have conquered, have supported. 

Had — the fourth form or pluperfect ; as, had 
conquered, had supported. 

Shall or will — the fifth form or first future ; as, 
shall conquer or will conquer; shall support or 
will support. 

Shall or will have — the sixth form or second 
future ; as, shall have conquered or will have 
conquered. 

Note. — There are many exceptions to these signs, which are on- 
ly given as an assistant . 

The indicative mood has six tenses. 
The imperative has one tense. 
The infinitive has two tenses. 

Conjugation is the combining of verbs and 
participles to form the tenses of the several moods. 

Verbs which form the imperfect tense, [or se- 
cond form,] and perfect participle by adding d 
or ed to the present, are called regular; as, 
walked, loved. 
h2 



p: 



f® AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Conjugation of the verb love, in the indicative moo<L, 

FIRST FORM PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural 

I.Pers. Hove, 1. We love, 

2, Pers. Thou lovest, 2, You love, 

2. Bcvs r He fcves or loveth. 3. They love, 

SECOND FOF H M-^IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. Plur, 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

THIRD FORM—-FERFECT TENSE. 

Sing . Plur. 

1. I. have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, )■ H 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

FOURTH FORM-*rrLUPEKFECT TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

ft. Thou, hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. lie had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FIFTH FORM-^-FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing. P lur - 

1. J shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou shalt love, . 2. You shall love, 
?. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

SIXTH FORM---SECOND FUTURE TENSE. V ^ 

Sing, plur - , _ 

1, I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

% Thou shalt have loved, 2. You shall have loved, 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 

*Note 1.— Forthe accommodation of those grammarians, who 
prefer calling these three founs, past tense, the brace is used. It 
also is used to include the two, forms of future tense. As making 
euly three tenses, would much lighten the labor of the learner, and 
as we scarcely think of time, in any other- way than as past, pres- 
ent, or future, perhaps for all practical purposes, that distinction 
h sufficiently accurate. 

Note 2.— Tenses which are formed without a combination of 
verbs and participles, are called simple tenses ; as, we relate, we re- 
lated; those formed by a combination are called compound tenses; 
as, we toe related, we had related, &c. When we wish to expre* 
energy or positiveness, do is prefixed to the present; as I do lor$; 
a,nd did to the imperfect; as, 1 did love. 



faf. 



o 



TO A KHOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ft 
Lt will be proper to commit the conjugation of the prece- 
ding verb to memory. After you thoroughly understand 
ftocoSsation, vou will find no difficulty in conjugatmg 
3r verb/for they are all conjugated precisely in 
the same way. As a proof of your knowledge.pleaseconjugat. 
he Swing through all the tenses of the indiea >ve m0 od; 
com m ence,conquer, reside, live, sueeeed, and respeet. 

Then a verb is preceded by ./, though, unless, $c and has 
reference to future time, which may be known by is taking 
should or shall, &c, before it; the verb does not vary to 
agree with its nominative j as, 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Ptur. 



Sing. 

1. Ifllove, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If ye or you love,. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

The propriety of calling this form or conjugation of the 
rerb to tense, is obvious. The expression ,/ thou love, 
does noTTmW that thou noro lovest but the probabdity or 
supposition that thou mayest in some future time. 

When a verb is preceded by if, though, unless;^ andhas 
no reference to future time, and will not admit should or 
shall before it, without perverting the meaning, it is m the 
present tense. 

though situated as it is here used. 

Conjugation combining may, can, must, might, could, 
would,, and sftowta* with love. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

FIRST FORM. 

«. Plur. 

1 I mlyfcan or must love, 1. We may, can or must love, 
£ Thou mayst, canst or 2. Ye or you may, can or 

must love, mu3t loye » 

3 He may, can or must love. 3. They may, can or mm 

love. 



E3 



92 AN EASY AND LUCID GUI D1T 

THIRD FORM. 

S*>£\ PZwr. 

1. I may, can or must have 1. We may, can or must 

loved, have loved, 

2. Thou mayst,£anst or must 2. Ye or you may, can or 

have loved, must have loved, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can or must 

loved. have loved. 

FOURTH? FORM. 

Sing. Plur; 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might,, could, 

should have loved, would or should 

have loved, ... 

2. Thou mightst,£ouldst,. 2. Ye or you might,. could, 

wouldst,. or shouldst would or should 

have loved, have lover), 

3: He might, could, would or 3.. They might,, could, 
should . have loved. would^ or should 

•have loved. 

When could or would is joined to a simple verb, and the 
two are used as one tense,, the combination may express 
either past, or future time; and some grammarians say pres- 
ent. A few examples will illustrate these sentiments. Yes- 
terday he would go to meeting. I could not accomplish the 
business in time. He could not formerly learn geography, - 
These examples in italicks express past actions, but in the 
following, they express future. "Our language ivould be 
very deficient without connectives, it would, in fact, amount 
to nonsense.' 7 ' "It would be difficult for the lonely African 
traveller to express, in a word, or a sentence, the idea called 
up in his mind by the roaring of a lion." "If George would 
apply himself diligently, he couldbe a scholar." 

Might j joined to a simple verb, generally expresses either 
absolute or relative future time. "He was ill, but I thought 
he might UveP Might live in this example, denotes a rela- 
tive future action; that is, the action denoted by might live, 
was relatively future to the thought of the speaker. "That 
he might receive his sight." "O that my head were waters, 
and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and 
night," &c. "That in ages to come he might show the ex- 
ceeding riches of his grace," &c. Tn these examples the 
verbs in italicks are future. The following verbs also de- 
note future time : If he will go he may go. He must go 
to-morrow, if he live till then. We expect he can write 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9$ 

neatly. An eminent grammarian says, "that on some occa- 
sions might, could, would and should refer to present time.** 
The word may joined to a simple verb, and the two used 
as one tense, more generally refers to future, than to present 
time . And might, used in this way, almost universally refers 
to future time. Those who doubt these remarks, I think 
may be fully satisfied by reference to the Holy Scriptures, 
in which these expressions very frequently occur. The time 
of the action of verbs, \n man.y cases,, must be determined by 
the meaning of the sentence, and not in the form of words. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Sing. Plur. 

2^ Walk* or walk thou, or (Jo 2. Walk* or walk ye or you, 
thou walk. or do ye or you walk. 

Verbs in the imperative mood are always future. No one 
can obey a command till after he receives it. I am fully 
aware that there is a great difference in opinion, in respect to 
the tense of this mood. Some grammarians contend that it 
is present tense, for the reason, <'it is inconsistent with the 
nature of things for a command to be given in future time, 
and that the fulfilment of the command has nothing to do 
with the tense or time of the command itself." 

This latter opinion involves the strange principle, that the 
tense or time of actions,, is to be ruled by the time of speak- 
ing the sentence, and not by the consummation or existence 
of those actions. The philologist would certainly be star- 
tled, to hear all his varied expressions, in one sentence, in re- 
lation to the time of the action of verbs, parsed as present 
tense, because, that is the time in which he speaks them.— A 
very distinguished grammarian remarks* in relation to the 
tense of the imperative mood, <<that it is always future by con- 
struction. And it needs no argument to prove the absurd^ 
ty of commanding a person to do an action yesterday, or at 
any other time than after the comnxand is expressed. Near- 
ly all which is said in European grammars respecting the 
tenses of this verb* is perfectly childish, No sophistry can 
make it any thing else than future. If a man sees instant 
danger threaten his friend, and says 'take care,' all he can 
mean is, that his friend may take care in consequeuce of his. 
warning." 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

FUTURE TENSE. PERFECT TENSE, 

*To. w\k x To have walked^ 



94 AK EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

*This form of the infinitive, is always either absolutely o 
relatively future; as, I desired to walk, yesterday. Thede-. 
sire on yesterday was then present with me; the action indica- 
ted by the verb to walk was relatively future of thati desire,, 
though it is not so in reference to the present time. 

We expect to start immediately. To start is a verb in the 
infinitive mood, signifying an action expected by the speak- 
ers, but not commenced, and therefore necessarily future. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present-imperfect walking,, 
Perfect, walked, 

Compound, having walked, 

Note.-^As the perfect participle, and the second form, or im- 
perfect tense of regular verbs, are spelled exactly alike, some rule 
to assist the pupil, to know the one from the other is necessary. 
The imperfect tense always has a nominative either expressed or- 
implied, and the perfect participle never has. 

THE VERB TO BE, 

We shall now proceed to the consideration, of this very 
eminent verb,. which,„has hitherto called forth much talent, 
and eloquent reasoning, and which still affords a fruitful 
theme, for critical investigation.. The verb to fo,,as it is 
mostly called, is made up of six different radical verbs, which 
are correlatively used to form parts of the moods and tenses, 
and to relieve the monotonous repetition of sounds, which 
the frequency and importance of its use would otherwise 
require. The following definitions of these radicals, select- 
ed from the rich effusions of an eminent Philologist^ will be 
both deeply instructive and amusing in relation to the origi- 
nal meaning and importance of this word. This elucidation 
will also show how harmoniously its original and present 
meaning coincide. 

Am is a compound of ah, breath, and to breathe, life, and 
to live, light, and to light; and ma the hand, and to hand,, 
In early times, this verb ma, denoted a large portion of the 
actions done by man, of which the hand was the instrument. 
The compound ah-ma, was to exercise, or perform, the func- 
tions oHight-ing or liflng one's self; for light, life and live 
are but modified terms of one word. The letter a in ah-ma 
was soon dropped, and in the course of contracting words,. 
h also being subsequently dropped leaves am as now used; 
but with the same meaning which the word always had: for 
no one can use the term without conveying this fact, whether. 
he truly interprets his own expression or not. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 

In the practical application of the verb am, it can have no 
variation in its objects, consequently objective words, are 
unnecessary to be expressed. They could serve no purpose 
of distinction or perspicuity. One man is not contemplated 
as inflating the lungs of another; but each as performing this 
vital function for himself, It is not necessary to say I 
breathe breath, or vivify myself with breath, for this is una- 
voidably understood in saying I am) and this understanding 
of the objective words does not depend on any difference in 
grammatical or philosophic principle, but on the associa- 
ted facts in the particular case. Am is confined in its use 
exclusively to the indicative mood, present tense, first person 
singular. It has, therefore, no variety in its manner of mean- 
ing. 

Am, signifies to possess, and exercise liveliness, to con- 
tinue, sustain, vivify or uphold one's self; to retain vitality, 
and enjoy its attributes. 

Am always denotes action of the highest kind • but it is self- 
action in the strictest form; and not that which, except from 
the unavoidable nature of actions, extends its effects to secon- 
dary objects. 

Be, signifies to live, to breathe; to exercise the qualities 
and functions of animal life; and when applied by analogy 
to matter it signifies to take, possess or' hold some state of 
being, among existing things. It is the same word, slightly 
altered as in the first syllable in biography, which means a 
history of a person's life. 

Are, air, art; these are the same word, which in modern 
practice, is slightly and conveniently modified in form- but 
without any variation of meaning. Thou art is contracted 
from thou arest. 

"They are," means first, they air, or are themselves, they 
supply themselves with air; they vivify, inspirit, and preserve 
themselves by means of air; and applied to the lower ranks 
of things or creatures, they continue themselves in air, or the 
regions of air, liglit, or being. Secondly* They are , ox air; 
they inhale or imbibe air; as they drink drink, sleep sleep, 
or breathe breath; they enjoy the enlivening influence of air; 
and inferior things do something as nearly analagous to the 
same action as their various natures and circumstances will 
admit. 

Is, signifies to exist, being a contraction from the same 
radical word; to stand forth; to exhibit one's self; to take or 
hold some stand or position in the universe of existing things. 



96 AN EASY AND -LUCJD GUlDfc 

Is, always denotes self-action. One person does not exist 
another. person, and the actor is one of the objects. Is, like 
other verbs, has a verbal noun, or the equivalent idea neces- 
sarily implied ; as, it stands its standing; it exists its existence; 
it holds its place, atid acts its act among actors, living and 
dead,' throughout the "Creator's works. 

Were,wert,tcerih, worthy wvrd>— il ln the beginning wag 
the Word, and the Word was with God, and the word was 
G^xK" These are all but the variations of one term, signi- 
fying sjnrii^ the enlivening power ; the vital, or life-giving 
principle: "They were;" they inspirited themselves, they pos- 
sessed vitality; and as applied to the minor gradations of be- 
ings,they possessed and exercised those acting powers, anal- 
agous, by receding degrees, to animal life, which acting pow- 
ers pervade every portion of the material world. 

Was, is from the same radical word as were, and with the 
same meaning. 

"And God said let there delight; and there teas light." 

If it was any action to create the sun and stars, with their 
attendent orbs, that action is signified by the short sentence 
above; and if the sentence denotes action, it is ''expressed" 
entirely by the verbs be and was. 

Be, imperative verb, exist; spring into being; assume posi- 
tion, order, and acting influence, in the system of revolving 
worlds. 

Was, indicative verb, past tense, denoting that the fiat of 
Almighty power and wisdom, "Light he* was instantly obey- 
ed. 

"And God said unto Moses, "I AM THAT I AM: and 
thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel ; I AM hath 
sent me unto you?'— Exodus iii. 14. 

"1 am the I am, or that I am," 

Am, verb expressing self- action, the act of sustaining one^ 
self in life. The I AM, or the AM] Vitality itself; uncreated, 
boundless, unending Being; Life-giving power; Self-sustain- 
ing Existence; the eternal, uncontrolled^ unassisted, self-act- 
ing Principle of Life. 

/ am, as here used, is taken altogether as a noun ; and such 
a noun as never had a parallel in expression. It could not be 
translated, from the original, into any language^ without 
greatly lessening its force. 

lam, as a noun, could never be thus used, but by the Ever 
Living God) and without verbal reasoning upon it-, the una- 
voidable necessity of the case shows that it can be taken only 



fO k KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ffi 

&s a nominative word, or as the actor; because that, as the 
Supreme Being has "no variableness, neither shadow of turn- 
ing," and is above all influence of inferior actors, he cannot 
in strictness be contemplated as the object of any action; for 
the nature of action is unavoidably to produce change in that 
on which it operates. 

I shall now proceed to the special consideration of the 
rea&ons advanced in support of the neuter verb iystem. 

The following are about the Strongest I have seen : "If 
we teli the young learner, that*, in the following expressions, 
The church rests on its foundation; The book lies on the 
desk; The boys remain (are) idle, the nouns church, book, 
and boys, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs 
rests, lies, remains, and are, are ctciive, he will not believe 
you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses." 
— It appears to me it would not be very difficult, for a schol- 
ar, to perceive as much apparent action in their), as in the 
following, if that is to be a test between active and neuter 
verbs: She resembles h\m ; It becomes him; I have a house; 
Peter retains his moneys John owns that book; all of which 
are called active* even by the neuter verb grammarians^ and 
govern the objective case because they are active-. In the 
first of these examples we can easily give rests an objective 
case: The church rests or supports itself on its foundation. 
And also by a familiar example : The boy being tired, we rest 
ourselves. Here rest, without any more appearance of appa- 
rent action, than in the other example*, is called an active 
transitive verb, and the oh]oct ourselves is governed by it. 
2d. The book lies on the floor. "To give this verb an object 
makes the expression rather awkward, particularly on account 
'of the interference of other verbs; yet this circumstance does 
riot alter its real meaning; To lie, Saxon liegan; French 
Her; Latin Ugo; means to bind, to tie, fasten, hold, fix, or 
keep in place. The man lies down (or prostrates himself) 
on his bed. 'The tiger lies (conceals himself) in wait for his 
prey.' 'The lever lies (keeps itself) on the deck.' M Are 

in the third example has been explained. A second reason 

assigned is, "that if it can on scientific principles, be proved, 
that all verbs are active, it does not follow that we cannot 
speak of things in a state of quiescence. What is false in fact 
may be correct in grammar." By calling all verbs active, the 
inference cannot be fairly drawn, that, we are not to speak of 
things, so far, in a state of quiescence, as the governing laws 
of action will admit. The latter part of the second reason, 
I 



<lg AN EASY AND LttClD GtJIDfi 

"that what is false in fact, may be correct in grammar," doe3 
not very well agree with the definition of grammar; "That it is 
the art of speaking and writing the English language with 
propriety." 3d. "By using adverbs in connexion with verbs, 
we can fairly prove that some verbs are not active. It is in- 
correct to say, I am happily; They were peacefully; She re- 
mains quietly; because these verbs do not. express action; 
therefore, happily should behapp}, peacefully, peaceful, and 
quietly, quiet. When no action is intended, we say, they 
live hapi>y and contented" — Is this a proof that these verbs 
ure not active? Let us examine this statement by some ex- 
amples: "I saw him previously to his arrival*'* According 
to the foregoing statement, previously is to be thus Corrected: 
Previously is incorrect, because, no action is intended by 
the verb "saw," (though it has an objective case after it which 
it governs,) therefore previously should be previous. 

Again, one of the most popular neuter verb grammarians 
says,"plausible arguments may be advanced for rejecting neu- 
ter and passive verbs." And on the next page* in speaking 
of an eminent grammarian's calling all verbs active, he says, 
"his view of the subject is novel and ingeniously supported." 
Another philologist, who is celebrated for his authorship of an 
English and Latin grammar, after having given his explana- 
tion, of active, passive, and neuter verbs, and that they are to 
be distinguished from each other by their nominatives* whe- 
ther active, passive, or neuter, says :"This mode of explanation 
is indeed rather illogical and defective; inasmuch, as it re- 
sorts to a different part of speech, the nominative, to ascer- 
tain the character of the verb, and as it applies to neither the 
infinitive mood, nor the participle — these forms of the verbs 
having no nominatives." In the examples; "Be there quick- 
ly; Stand out of my way; Sit or lie farther;" a neuter verb 
grammarian remarks, "that these verbs are here employed in 
an active sense; but itis certain they are not used according 
to their proper literal meaning." If this assertion is correct, 
several of his oWn expressions require correction, as well as 
very many in the Scriptures. "Be ambitious to excel. Be 
thorough in your investigations. Don't be afraid to think 
for yourself." Be of good cheer. Be of good comfort. Be 
strong;— All these verbs in italicks are in the imperative 
moodj and if no change in the mind or conduct of those to 
whom the expressions were addressed, was expected to be 
effected, which could not take place without producing ac- 
tion} according to the position assumed, they should all be 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

changed to remain. Remain ambitious to excel. Remain 
of good cheer, &x. &c. It does not take a very profound 
philosopher to see the assumpt ion given above, is merely a 
subterfuge. And that no neuter verb could, with any de- 
gree of propriety, be used in the imperative mood; for it 
would be entirely useless to exhort a person to stand firm, 
sit down, or be what he is not, if no action was ever signified 
understood, or complied with by the expression. 

The foregoing reasons, with the following, have induced 
me, to include all the verbs, which are generally styled neu- 
ter, in the class of active. It is also proper to remark, that 
the limits assigned to this work, preclude giving a general de- 
velopement of the many reasons, which could be given, to 
support the theory of active verbs. For further and more 
elaborate proof, that all verbs are active, the reader is referred 
to the treatises of that profound philologist, William B, 
Cardell, 

1. The Universe, and every portion of matter of which it 
is composed, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, is influx 
enced by different active principles, tending to produce 
change . By gravitation, propulsion, cohesion, affinity, elec- 
tricity, and perhaps some yet unknown . 

2. It is claimed as a distinguishing trait of the neuter 
verb, that it represents actions, which are not appirent to tins 
penses, things in a state of quiescence, or in astate ot'being. 
The following examples certainly show, that verbs may exr 
press a high state of activity, not apparent to our limited 
senses. The cider converts itself into vinegar. It imbibes 
oxygen from the air. It produces change in the surround- 
ing atmosphere, by changing its constituents. This liquid, 
which is apparently without motion, in the cruet, performs 
direct actions on three objects at the same time. Vegeta- 
bles grow. Who can perceive or tell how? The earth re- 
volves itself on its axis.^-In relation to things being repre- 
sented in a state of quiescence, refer to page 97. In respect 
to the verb to be, expressing a state of being: such as, I am, 
I was, &c, there would be just as much propriety in the ex- 
ample, Philander loves, in calling love a verb expressing a 
state of loving. It would be as equally instructive in one 
example as in the other. 

3. Is, live, and stand, are selected as the most significant 
ofneutrality, which philosophy, and the general acceptation 
pf these terms, untrammeled by neuter inculcation, positive. 
}y contract. Is has been explained on page 95. Tho 



J00 m EASY AND, kVClB GUIBE 

man lives, In this example, every person understands- the* 
man is active, that is, he still supports and sustains himself ) 
or his lifeby vivifying and inflating air, and performing all 
the animal functions requisite to vitality. It is for the phy- 
siologist, as a writer justly observes, "to say whether the hu-. 
man machine, of frame-work, c^rds, pivots, tubes, cylinders^ 
and retorts, caw retain its own vitality without performing 
at each instant ten thousand actions beyond what the micro- 
scope can display, or the united skill of the philosopher, 
chemist, engineer, and optician can explain" The man 
stands. If stand does not express action, physical power, 
skill, or strength, the child of three months old could stand % 
as well as the man of twenty-five years. The mountebank 
stands on his head upon a swinging cord, which is twenty^ 
five feet from the ground. ^If stand, in this example, ex- 
presses no action, what is action V* 

4. It is impossible for a thing to be and not to be; to exist 
and not to exist; to act and effect nothing. The verb is cer- 
tainly should not be so much employed, for a purpose which 
it never perfoms. If it is employed without change to all 
conditions of being, it certainly can indicate no one, defi- 
nitely or distinctly. 

5. Although there is a verb in Latin and Greek, nearly 
corresponding with "to be," called neuter, yet the best quo- 
tations, from Latin and Greek x cannot prove what is false in 
English, to be correct. 

6. Was it possible, to form; a~ncu^er verb, it would not be 
to give it a perfect participle, vvhich universally denotes the 
resulting effect of change or action. "If the verb go had no 
object, nothing could ever be gone," &c. And again, all 
the verbs, which are called neuter, take the 'auxiliaries' be- 
fore them, with all the motives, conditions, and obligations 
of action. 

7. The theory of active verbs, is not only correct, more ea- 
sily learned, and much les$ perplexing, but* admit the neuter 
sjstem,and we have many more, verbs in the active class, 
which have obj$c$s, that do not express apparent action; con- 
sequently require a "labored and metaphysical investigation 
of the laws of natnre to explain them," than we bave in the 
class erroneously called neuter, for want of a proper and sim- 
ple explanation. Thus when scholars are taught to know^ 
that all vei-bs are active, and that in colloquial style, in order 
\o avoid monotony, the objects are frequently not expressed, 
VtA ^U e Q tue y are not J lnat li ls not always necessary to name 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

the object; the study of the verb then becomes easy, pleasing 

and instructive. . . . 

As one of the principal uses claimed for the distinction 
between what is generally called active and neuter verbs, is, 
to know what form of pronouns must follow the verb; the 
following information on that subject is given. In the practi- 
cal application of the verb am, it can have no variation in its 
objects, consequently objective words are not necessary to be 
expressed. In colloquial style "to be" does not govern the 
objective case-the object must be governed by some other 
word expressed or understood . Any noun after, as well as 
before a verb, maybe agent or nominative, and not object, 
when that noun does not denote the thing which the verbal 
action produces or effects. Therefore, when it is not eflect- 
ed by the verb, it is in apposition with the former noun, and 
must be in the same case. As I know there is a strong pre- 
dilection for "old names,-'* those who prefer calling "to be 
neuter, because its object is so unavoidably understood that 
it is rot necessary to express it, are at liberty to do so.— It 
is essentially necessary to observe very particularly, the man- 
ner in which 'to be' is conjugated, as it enters more frequent- 
ly into composition than any other verb. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

FIRST FORM — PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing. plur - 

1. lam, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. Ye or you are, 

3. He, she or it is. 3. They are. 



*For the information of those who are afraid of new names, it 
may be remarked, that the theory of active verbs, has been ably ad- 
vocated and supported by many profound philologists. 
i2 



P3 



i 



5 



102 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

SECOND FORM — IMPERFECT TENSE. 

*S'i7i#. Plur. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He, she or it was. 8. They were. 

THIRD FORM PERFECT TENSE; 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I have been,. 1. We have^een,. 

2. Thou hast b'een, t 2., Ye or you have been, 

3. He, she or ithasbeenv 3. They have been. 

FOURTH FORM-r-PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing, Plur* 

1..-.I had been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He,,ahe, or it had been. 3. They had been. 

FIFTH FORM — FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou.shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

be, 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

SIXTH FORM SECOND FUTURE TENSE. > °^ 

Sing. Plur. £■ 

1. I shall have been, K We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. Ye or you will have 

been, 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been, 

Note. — -It may be observed, that in conjugating the sixth form^. 
shall is used in the first person, and. will in, the second and thirdc 

It has become fashionable and customary, when the verb 
*to be^ is preceded by if, though, unless, and words of a sim- 
ilar nature, and when the sentence has reference to future 
time, not to vary the spelling of the verb to agree with the 
different persons of its nominatives; as, 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing. * Plur. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

3. If thou be, 2 4 If ye or you be, 

2. If he be. 3. If they be. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert,, 2. If ye or you were, 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 



CD 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 103 

The reasons given for the propriety of the foregoing con- 
jugation, are, that it makes a convenient "elliptical future," 
and also because it is fashionable, and popular writers thus 
use it. Be preceded by if, though, unless, &c, even if it 
will take should or shall before it, does not always denote a 
future action. Illustration: "Though he (the Lord} be not 
far from every one of us." "And Peter answered nim and 
said Lord, if it be thou,,bid me come unto thee on the water.' v 
Many other scripture passages might be quoted to support 
the latter remark. Some grammarians reject these forms of 
expression, contending they are not only inelegant,, but un= 
grammatical. 

Conjugation with may, can, must, might, eould r would ?i 
and should, prefixed. 

FIRST FORM PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1\ I may, can or must be, 1. We may, can or must be, 

2. Thou mayst, canst or must 2. Ye or you, may, can or 

be, must be, 

3. He may, can or must be. 3. They may, can or must be, 

THIRD FORM — PERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I may, can or must have 1. We may, can or must have 

been, been, 

2L Thou mayst, canst or must 2. Ye or you may, can or 

have been, must have been, 

3. He may, can or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been. have been. 

FOURTH FORM— ^PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have been, or should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,. 

wouldst or shouldst have would or should have 

been, been. 

3. He might, could, would,. 3. They might, could, would 

or should have been. or should have been.. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

FIFTH FORM— FUTURE TENSE.. 

Sing. Plur. 

2. Be, or be thou,. or do thou 2. Be, or be ye or you, or do. 
be. ye or you be.. 



104 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

To be, 



Perfect tense* 
To have been* 



PARTICIPLES* 



Present-imperfect , 

Perfect, 

Compound 



being, 
been, 
having been* 



IiECTURE 10 th.— OF IRREGULAR VERBS, &C. 

Verbs which do not form the imperfect tense* 
[or second form,] and perfect participle by ad- 
ding d, or ed, to the present, are called irregu- 
lar; as, present tense, I write; imperfect, I 
wrote; perfect participle, written, 

1. Those which take three different forms from the same 
root. Those marked with an R. are sometimes conjugated 
regularly. 



Present 


TENSE. 


Sec. form-imper* 


Perfect Part 


awake 




awoke R 


awaked 


arise 




arose 


arisen 


bear 




bore 


borne 


begin 




began 


begun 


bid 




bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


bite 




bit 


bitten,bit 


blow 




blew 


blown 


break 




broke 


broken 


choose 




chose 


chosen 


chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


cleave, to adhere 


clave, R 


cleaved 


cleave, to 


split 


cleft or clove 


cleft or cloven 


clothe 




clothed 


clad, R 


crow 




crew 


crowed 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. iQ& 



PRESENT. 


SEC. FORM-IMPER. 


PERFECT PART, 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dq 


did 


done 


dare 


durst, Rj 


dared 


drinlv 


drank 


drunk 


eat 


eat, ate 


eaten 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forget 


forgot 


forgottea 


forgive 


forgave 


forgive^ 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


fall 


fell 


fallen, 


give 


gave 


given 


grave 


graved 


graven, R 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, R 


hide 


hid 


hidden, y^ 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


ladecl 


laden, R 


load 


loaded 


laden, R 


lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain 


mow 


mowed 


mown 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, R 


saw 


sawecj 


sawn, R 


day 


slew 


slain 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


strive 


strove 


striven 


see 


saw 


seen 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


sit 


sat 


set 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, R 


shine 


shone, R 


shone, R 


stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


pwell 


swelled 


swollen, R 


sow 


sowed 


sown, R 


show 


showed 


shown, R, 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tpre 


lorn 


thrive 


throve, R 


thriven 


threw 


ttoew 


thrown 



106 AN EASY AND LUCID GU1DK 



PRESENT. 


SEC. FORM-IMPER. 


PERFECT PART, 


tread 


trod, 


trodden 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


write 


wrote 


written 


2. Those which 


are not varied for tense. 


Present. 


Sec. FORM-1MPBR. 


Perfect Part, 


burst 


burst 


burst 


bid 


bid 


bid 


cast 


cast 


cast 


cost 


cost 


cost 


cut 


cut 


cut 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


hit 


hit 


hit 


knit 


knit,R 


knit, R 


let 


let 


let 


put 


put 


put 


rid 


rid 


rid 


read 


read 


read 


set 


set 


set 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


shut 


slit 


slit 


slit 


shed 


shed 


shed 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


3. Those which 


change d to t, in ] 


forming the past t 


PRESENT, 


SEC. FORM-IMPER. 


PERFECT PART. 


J^end 


bent 


bent 


build 


built 


built 


gild 


gilt, R 


gilt, R 


gird 


girt,R 


girt, R 


lend 


lent 


lent 


rend 


rent 


rent 


send 


sent 


sent 


spend 


spent 


spent 


4. Those which change the final ed into t, or are a 


wise modified in the past tense. 




PRESENT. 


SEC. FORM-IMPEJ*. 


PERFECT PART, 


a^ide 


abod§ 


abode 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 



PRESENT* 


SEC. FORM-IMPER. 


PERFECT PART, 


build 


built 


built 


buy 


bought 


bought 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bring 


brought 


brought 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bind 


bound 


bound 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cling 


clung 


clung 


catch 


caught, R 


caught, R 


corns 


came 


come 


deal 


dealt, R 


dealt, R 


dwell 


dwelt, R 


dwelt, R 


dig 


dug, R 


ddg> R 


feed 


fed 


fed 


fight 


fought 


fought 


feel 


felt 


felt 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


flung 


flung 


flee 


fled 


fled 


grind 


ground 


ground 


get 


got 


got 


hold 


held 


held 


have 


had 


had 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


keep 


kept 


kept 


lose 


lost 


lost 


lay 


laid 


laid 


leave 


left 


left ' 


lead 


led 


led 


make 


made 


made 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


ride 


rode 


rode 


run 


ran 


riin 


ring 


rung, rang 


rung 


sling 


slung 


slung 


sting 


stung 


stung 


string 


strung 


strung 


swing 


swung 


swung 


sing s 


sung, sang 


sung 


spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


swim 


swim, swam 


swum 



108 



AS easy And lucid guIde 



shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


sink 


sunk 


sunk 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


strifee 


struck 


struck 


seek 


sought 


sought 


stride 


Strode 


strode 


spin 


spun 


spun 


sit 


sat 


sat 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


sell 


sold 


sold 


stand 


stood 


stood 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slid, slitlden 


shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapeii 


say 


said 


said 


shave 


shaved 


shaven^ R 


sow 


sowed 


sown 


speed 


sped 


sped 


strive 


strove 


striven 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wet 


wet 


wetj R 


work 


worked, Wrought 


worked, wrought 


win 


wori 


won 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R 



5. Some are made up of different radicals, which have been 
united for the sake of relieving the monotony of frequent use. 
am was been 

go went gone 

The following words are sometimes used, but are nearly obsolete : 
spitlen, bidden, gotten : sang and sank should not be used in famil- 
iar style. The following verbs, and a few others, are lometimes 
improperly ended with t instead of erf. "Spilt, learnt, stopt, latcht, 
lopt, dropt." Heard is often seen instead of heated. "Beard is 
the only word in the English language that ends in eard." It may 
also be remarked, that many of the verbs styled irregular, in the 
foregoing columns, are frequently ended as regular. Perhaps to 
this ending a preference may be given. 



tO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGlIr&H GRAMMAR. ]0Q 

Please to readthe last two lectures five or six times over; 
and conjugate the 'following verbs, through all the moods and 
tenses : Go, run, sit, stand, forget, abide, help, come Af- 
ter this is faithfully accomplished, parse, and reparse, the -fol- 
lowing examples. The distinction between tegular and ir- 
jeuular verbs should now be made. 

"Caloric pervades all bodies even light.' 1 

Pervades is a verb, which signifies action, and governs or 
effects the object bodies— regular, the second form and 
perfect participle will form by adding d to the present tens?— 
indicative mood, because it asserts a thing, and has a direct 
personal relation to its agent caloric— present tense, it de- 
notes a present aclioh-third person, singular, because its 
agent "caloric*'' is, with which it agrees, according to Utile I. 
Combated— Indicative mood, first form > first P 8ts - sm S- } 
pervadti second form,l pervaded; third form, I have pervad- 
ed- fourth form, I had pervaded; fifth form, I Shall or will per- 
vade; sixth form, I shall have pervaded. Conjugate it througn 
all the moods— and every verb which is parsed, until the man- 
ner is quite familiar. 

"Forbear, my son, the hermit cries." 

Forbear is a verb, which signifies action, and it governs or 
effects an object understood— irregular, the second form and 
perfect participle, will not form by adding d or ed to the pres- 
ent-imperative mood, it expresses the will of the speaker, 
(hermit) addressed to his son— future tense, it denotes a tir- 
ture action, or an action not yet commenced— second person, 
because theacrent thou understood is, with which it agrees, 
according to Rule 1. Conjugate it through all the moods 
and tenses. 

"They are making preparations to build a house. 

To build is a verb, whichsignifies action, and has house for 
its object— irregular, the second form and perfect participle 
will not form by adding d or ed to the present— infinitive 
mood, it expresses a thing in an unlimited manner, and has 
no direct connexion with a personal actor— future tense, it 
denotes a future action, or an action not yet commenced.— 
Conjugate it. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

Virtue adorns youth. He delights in study: Thou im- 
provest thy talents. You studied faithfully. Iron was in 
ase in the time of Moses. A bad life will make a bad end. 
K 



110 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Boys, love your parents. Temper the vivacity of youth, 
with a mixture of serious thought. A good and proper edu- 
cation has a tendency to humble. He can improve if he will. 
He might have improved, had he not been indolent. Let 
virtue be your principal aim. If thy brother trespass 
against thee, rebuke him; if he repent, forgive him. Who 
can preserve himself? They may have forgotten their task. 
What shall we do to inherit eternal life? 

QUESTIONS ON THE MOODS A.NS) TENSES. 

85. What is mood? 85. There are how many moods? 
85. How are these moods divided? 87. Do we apply a rule, 
in parsing verbs in the infinitive mood? 87. What verbs 
require the following infinitive to drop the sign to? 87* 
What is tense or time? 87. How many primary divisions 
of time? 87* How many forms or tenses, which express 
nice shades of difference in relation to the time of concomi- 
tant actions? 87. Give a definition of the six tenses. 89. 
How many tenses has the indicative mood? 93. What is 
the tense of the imperative mood called? 89. How many 
tenses has the infinitive mood, and what are they called? 

89. What is conjugation? 89. What are regular verbs? 

90. What are called simple tenses? 90. What are called 
compound tenses? 104. Wliat are irregular verbs ? 108. 
What words are nearly obsolete ? What words are sometimes 
fcnproperly ended in t, instead of ed? 

ADDITIONAL REMARKS UPON MOODS, 

As there is great diversity of opinion in respect to moods, 
perhaps, it may not be improper, to present the reader with 
some of the different opinions. 

Harris, a learned writer of England, gives fourteen moods, 
the declarative or indicative, the potential, subjunctive, in- 
terrogative, requisitive, imperative, precautive, optative, 
enunciative, &.c. &c. 

"If we do not strictly assert, as of something absolute and 
certain, but as of something possible only, and in the num- 
ber of contingents, this makes that mode, which grammarians 
call the Potential; and which becomes on some occasions, 
the leading mode of the sentence." — Hermes, page 141. 

"Yet sometimes the potential, is not the leading mode, but 
only subjoined to the indicative; as, Thieves rise by night, 
that they may cut men's throats." Here, that they rise, is 
positively asserted, in the declarative or indicative mood; but 
as to their cutting men's throats, this is only delivered poten- 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, m 

tidily, because how truly soever it may be the end of their 
rising, it is still but a contingent, that may never perhaps hap- 
pen. This mode, as often as it is used in this way, is called 
by grammarians, not the potential, but the subjunctive" — 
Page 143. 

In reply to the foregoing, it may be remarked, this attemp- 
ted distinction is made upon the supposed meaning of words. 
And "instead of using the rule to discover the fact, the rule 
is hung on the fact, after that is fully ascertained.'" A theory 
which is not only remarkably perplexing, but impossible, for 
the young learner to comprehend and apply. 

The following is about the best definition which is givea 
of the subjunctive mood. 

"It may be considered that the changes of termination (for 
the subjunctive mood) are necessary when these two circum- 
stances concur — 1. When the subject is of a dubious and 
contingent nature: and 2. When the verb has a reference to 
future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
stances will be found to unite; <lf thou injure another, thou 
wilt hurt thyself. If he continue impenitent, he must suffer." 

To incumber pupils with explanations which are not only 
precarious but irrelevant, should certainly bo most carefully 
avoided. And any attempt to explain and distinguish moods, 
according to the precarious meaning of preceding words, is 
not only more perplexing and much less instructive, but re- 
quires more time, than to study (which every grammarian 
ghould do) their meaning in a dictionary. Every experienced 
and candid preceptor will judge and appreciate the validity of 
these remarks. 

A celebrated writer, in his remarks upon the subjunctive 
mood, says; "It does not require a very penetrating logic to 
see that the positive assertion in the indicative mood, 'thou 
wilt hurt thyself,' wholly depends, for all the certainty it can 
have, on the contingencies of the other member of the sen- 
tence, Hf thou hurt another.' In the sentence, 'if he continue 
impenitent he must suffer,' what kind of justice is it to make 
the certain punishment depend on doubtful guilt, or contin- 
gent repentance?" He further remarks, "all which is said to 
explain the subjunctive mood, harmonizes in one incidental 
property. It is uniformly inconsistent," 

The writer just quoted, (who makes three moods,) after 
descanting upon Harris' fourteen, remarks: "The number 
should be multiplied by at least ten. The word need comes 
from another verb, without the preposition to. Need is there- 



112. AN EASY AND UfCID GUIDE 

fore the sign of the indigent mood ;. and dare of the courage- 
ous, and feci of the sensitive or passive mood,, &c. &c."-~- 
This is a very moderate addition, compared with the senti- 
ment of a popular grammarian, who observes, "were we to. 
assign a particular name to every, change in the mode or 
manner o£ representing act ion orbeing^.the number of moods, 
in on* language would amount to many hundreds." This 
principle of making moods, leaves us,, truly,, like a mariner at 
sea, without compass or anchor. This writer makes five 
moods, and observes,, "he is not unaware that plausible ob- 
jections may be raised against it: : but what arrangement 
cannot be objected to?" This last expression, instead of 
showing the propriety of having five moods, seems admirably 
well; calculated to dupe the young, and retard their critical 
investigations of his principle of moods, which every candid 
investigator must seethe knew would not stand the test of 
philosophic criticism. 

Seeing, then, that it is utterly impossible to make a consis.- 
tent division of moods, according to the meaning of the words 
used in forming them; I give decided preference to the opin- 
ion of those who make three moods, for the following reasons. 
1. Because, those who tell us they make five, (and who say 
Harris' fourteen is more curious than instructive,) do, virtu- 
ally make nineteen. — "The indicative mood simply indicates 
or declares a thing, or it asks a question/' In the example, 
I will go hotne ; iait correct to say will go, is. a verb in the in- 
dicative mood, because it indicates and declares a thing, and 
asks a question? If it is not correct to apply all the defini- 
tion, but only a part, we then, clearly make, three moods out 
of it ; : the indicative, declarative and interrogative" " Whe a 
a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, 
motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the subjunctive mood," 
Here, are h've distinct reasons given for a verb, being, in. the 
subjunctive mood, consequently when individually applied,^ 
they are five mo des of governing or expressing this one.—r 
"The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, or necessi- 
ty, power, will, or obligation; as, It rnay rain ; He may go or 
stay; We must eat and drink; I can ride; He would walk;- 
They should learn." Explanation:. "In the first of these 
examples, the auxiliary may implies possibility; in the second 
it implies liberty; in the third must denotes necessity; can 
denotes power or ability; would implies will or inclination,; 
that is,he had a mind to walk; and should implies obliga- 
tion." Thiselucidation, given by an eminent grammarian, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 113 

clearly makes six modes or moods of the potential. — "The 
imperative mood is used for commanding, exhorting, entreat- 
ing or permitting ; as, Depart thou; Remember my admoni- 
tions; Tarry awhile longer; Go in peace." "The verb de- 
part expresses a command; remember exhorts; tarry expres- 
ses entreaty; and go permission." Thus, according to the 
grammarian's explanation, we have four moods out of the im- 
perative. It will be seen by the foregoing exposition, that 
the definitions which are given to the l *five moods" virtually 
make nineteen; -which, perhaps, all grammarians will say, 
are more than can be, practically, and usefully, applied. 

2. Bacause, we have three moods which are perfectly dis- 
tinct from each other, and which are not liable to fluctuation. 
Every action depends on some agency or cause to perform it, 
and the relation which verbs have to this agency, easily dis- 
tinguishes three moods. In the indicative mood, actions are 
represented as being performed, by an agant or actor. Verbs 
in the imperative mood express the volition or will of one in- 
telligent being, addressed to another, to do, or not to do some 
action. Verbs in the infinitive mood denote actions, which 
lake place, as consequent on some previous state of things 
taken together, as a cause to produce them. 



LECTURE 11 fli. 

OF VERB3 OF CONDITION, COMMONLY CALLED 1 PASSIVE. 

Verbs of condition, commonly called passive, 
denote the condition of their nominatives, wheth- 
er suffering or otherwise. 

Although I am fully aware that many ostensibly potent 
reasons are given for the rejection of what is generally called 
a passive verb, and that it is very difficult to manufacture and 
apply one, according to scientific principles; yet, as verbs are 
thus combined, and conveniently used, and as public opinion 
still maintains such a verb, I have concluded to present a con- 
jugation in that form. The philosophic critic, and those who 
k2 



► 



114 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

prefer calling all verbs principals, may also be informed, 
that they are presented with such an arrangement. While 
verbs and participles combined^ as f» the following conjuga- 
tion, are parsed as one verb, it appears to me the name verbs 
of condition wouii be rather more appropriate. A few ex- 
amples will illustrate this view. The glass is broken; The 
hoy is beaten; "Penelope is loved by me;" "Thunder is 
hearcd by me ;" The blow is given by me ;" The boy is lavglU; 
America was discovered by Columbus; Thomas lias been 
loved, &c. All these words, in italicks denote that their re- 
spective nominatives exist, or did exist, in the condition^ 
which the several perfect participles, joined to the verbs ex- 
pressive of their existence, denote. For instance, is broken, 
in the first example, shows the condition of its nominative 
glass. And is loved in the third, the condition of Penelope, 
and so on. 

Verbs of condition are called regular when* 
they end in cd; as, was appointed, was reduced. 

Verbs of condition, commonly called passive, 
are formed by adding the perfect participle to the 
verb "to,- foe." 

CONJUGATION OF TO BE LOVED* 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

y. . ~ (Sing. 1 am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. 

irs orm. ^pi ur We are ] ovec ^ ve or y 0U are ] ved, they &c.\ 
« , - (Sing. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved., 

econc orm. £pj wr yy e were ] oyec | ? ve or Y0U were ] ,ved, &c. 

Th" c\ f 5 Sing' 1 have been loved, thou hast been loved, he Sec. 

lr orm. ^p^ wr ^y e nave h een ] ove( ] ? y e or you have been Sec. 
f th f iSing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, &c. 

* ourtn iorm. ^ piur Wehad been* loved, ye or you had been &c, 

PTfK f 5 Sing' I shall or will be loved, thou shalt or wilt be Sic. 

v mn iorm. ^ piu ^ We gha]1 Qf wi]1 be ]oyed ^ ye of jqu gha]1 Qf &c 

q. ,, f {Sing. I shall have been loved, thou shalt have, &c. 

»ixtn iorm. ^ p/wf We s h a ll have been loved, ye or you will,&c. 

Note 1. — The tenses of this conjugation are governed by the verb 
to 6e, and not by the participles. 

Verbs combined as in the following conjugation, may with pro- 
priety be called future tense. 

Future {Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if "he beloved, 
t ense. \Plur. If we beloved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. 
Future (Sing. If I were loved, if thouwert loved, if he were loved, 
tense. \Plut. If we- were loved, if ye or you were loved > T ift&ey &c^ 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. U& 

This verb may also be conjugated by prefixing may, can, or 
must; as, first form, I may, can, or must be loved, thou mayst, 
canst, or must be loved, he may, can or must be loved. Se- 
cond form; I might, could, would, or should be loved, thou 
mWitst,couldsr, wouldst, or shouldst be loved, he might, 
could, would, or should be loved. Third form, I may, can, 
or must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, or must have 
been loved, he may, can, or must have been loved. Fourth 
form, I might, couH, would, or should have been loved, thou 
mightst,couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved, he, 
might, could, would, or should have been loved. The plurals 
may bs conjugated in like manner. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Future < Sing. Be loved, or do thou be loved, 
tense. ( Plur. Be loved, or do ye or you be loved. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future tense, To be loved. Perfect tense, To have been loved; 
PARTICIPLES. 

Presant, Being loved. Perfect, Been loved. Compound, Having 
been loved. 

Please to conjugate the following verbs, as to be loved is 
conjugated: To be slighted,, to be conquered, to be consign- 
ed, to be related, to be misguided, to be beaten, to be forgot- 
ten, to be seen. This requisition will doubtlessly appear, to> 
those unacquainted with the whole superstructure, as great 
drudgery for little gain. But be assured it is of essential im- 
portance^ 

When the present-imperfect participle is joined to the verb "to- 
be," the combination is called an active verb; as, 1 am writing 
thou wast writing, we have been writing, &c. Some grammarian 
prefer parsing each word separately : either mode is admissible. 

OF BROKEN OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Broken or defective verbs are those which are 
used only in some of the moods and tenses. 

The following are the principal of them ; may,, 
can, must, might, could, would, should, shall 
tmll, ought, and quoth. 

Present tense. Sec. Form Participle wanting. 

May, might. — — - 

Can, could. — ■ 

Must, must. -" 

Shall, should. 

Will, would. 

Ought, ought. — — 



116 AN EASY AND LUCID 6tlD« 

Note. Some of these verbs are never used unconnected witfr 
other yerbs either expressed or understood. Must and ought never' 
vary. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which determines its tense. If the following infinitive is in the fu- 
ture tense, ought is in the present; if the infinitive is in the past 
tense, ought is m the past. 

Do, be, have, and will are often used unconnected with 
other verbs; but in connexion with them, they may be conju- 
gated through all the moods and tenses. 

Do. Indicative mood, first form — present, I do; 2. I did; 
3. I have done; 4. I had done; 5. I shall or will do; 6. I 
shall have done. Imperative mood. Do thou. Infinitive 
mood, future tense, to do; past, to have done. Participles; 
present-imperfect, doing; perfect, done; compound, having 
done. Be has been conjugated through all the moods and 
tenses. Please refer to it, and notice particularly the many 
peculiarities it has in conjugation. 

Have. Indicative mood, first form, I have; 2. I had; 8. 
I have had; 4. I had had- 5. I shall or will have; 6. I shall 
have had. Imperative mood, Have thou. Infinitive, future, 
To have; Past, To have had. Participles, present, having; 
perf., had; comp., having had. 

Will, when it denotes the dispositon of an estate, may be 
conjugated regularly through all the moods and tenses; as, I 
will, I willed, I have willed ;• I had willed ; I shall will, I shall 
have willed. 

CASES OF NOUNSr 

Being aware that it is sometimes rather difficult to ascer- 
tain the cases of nouns and 5 pronouns,. I have thought it expe- 
dient to offer a few additional remarks thereon. We are told 
on page thirty nine, that the nominative case mostly comes 
before the verb, (which, with other signs given with it, was 
then sufficient,) but it is now proper to be informed, that it 
frequently comes after the verb; as, 1. When a command is 
given, a question asked, or a wish expressed; as, Walk ye. 
Dost thou undestand Astronomy? May he be at rest, 2. 
When the words here, there, thence, or thus precedes the verb; 
as, Here are we. Then went the astrologers. Thus says the 
preceptor. 3. When if ox though is understood in the be- 
ginning of a sentence; as r Had he been present. Were we 
more learned we should be gratified. That is, if he had been 
4fc. &$c. 

The verb to which the nominative ease belongs is frequent- 
ly understood ; as, "Pleasure [is]- a serpent,-, Fame [is] a 
cloud in air^' 



1*0 A KNOWLEDGE OF. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11? 

"Sweet [is] the hour of tribulation, 
When the heart can freely sigh.* 
A noun or pronoun following the words than, as, or but 
is very often nominative to a verb understood; as, 
"The man I trust, if shy to me, 
Shall find me as reserved as he [is reserved.] 
"Our senses,, as our reason, [is,} are divine." "She is 
wiser than he [is.]" 

"Much joy not only speaks much happiness, 
But [speaks] happiness that shortly must expire." 
The verb to which, the nominative case belongs, is frev 
quently situated several lines after it, especially in poetry ; as,. 
"Knowledge, a rude unprofitable mass,. 
The mere materials of which wisdom builds, 
Till smoothed, and squared, and fitted to its place, 
Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich." 
Xn this example, in order to ascertain what verb knowledge 
fs nominative to, pat the question, what does-knowledge do£ 
Does encumber. Knowledge then is nominative to does en- 

cumber* 

' The objective case, in poetry, is frequently many lines 
from the verb either expressed or understood, which governs 
it. After the words than, as, or but, it is often governed by 
a verb understood- Iti interrogative sentences it mostly 
comes before the verb; as, we respect James more than [we 
respect] him. Whom shall we respect? 

To ascertain the rases of nouns in constructions like some 
of the foregoing, requires some application to judgment; but 
by this, and by having the sentence transposed and the parts 
arranged according to their natural order^Httle difficulty wdi 
be experienced. 

Note —Some Philologists do not admit the propriety of supply- 
in- an elipsis after than, as, but, and except, but consider them pre- 
positions. This opinion has not yet the preponderance. 
"The book is printed." 
Is printed is a verb of condition, because it expresses tho 
condition of its nominative book—itis formed by adding the 
perfect participle printed to the verb to fo— regular, the per., 
part, endjs in erf— indicative mood, because it asserts a thing, 
and has a direct personal relation to its nominative book— 
present tense, it denotes a present condition — third person, 
singular, because its nominative "book" is, with which ft 



118 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

agrees, according to Rule 1. — Conjugate it through all the 
moods and tenses, and speak the participles. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSER. 

The first Christian churches were founded in Asia. It 
has been ascertained that water can be formed by artificial 
means. The lightning rod was invented by Dr. Franklin. 
It is reported that the peach was first imported from Persia. 
If lemon juice be dropped upon any kind of buff color, the 
dye will be instantly discharged. The seeds of grape s which- 
have been pressed and boiled, are used in Germany, as an ex- 
cellent substitute for coffee. Botany has been cultivated in 
China for more than 1000 years. They ought to have been 
learned. He ought to be respected. Blue color can be ex- 
tracted from the straw of buckwheat. 

A careful re-perusal of all that has been said, respecting 
the moods and tenses, is now advisable. For the encourage 
ment of students, I may remark, that when they thoroughly 
understand what has been presented, they will then be ac^ 
quainted with nearly all the principles requisite for the ana- 
lyzation of regularly constructed English sentences. 

PHILOSOPHIC EXPOSITION OF VERBS, MOODS, AND TENSES. 

This exposition is given for the gratification of those who 
believe in no other arrangement; and also to invite the atten- 
tion of the young connoisseur, to an investigation of the 
characteristics which distinguish this, from the foregoing 
arrangement, By carefully examining both arrangements, 
he will be enabled to decide to which the preference should 
he given, for preeision, simplicity , and strict propriety. Of 
course, teachers, who do not approve such an arrangement* 
will let their students pass over it. The Parsing Key is con- 
formed to the foregoing; but this should not be considered 
any grounds for omitting the perusal of this dissertation. 

A verb signifies to do some action ; as, "Millers grind corn.. 
Clouds shed rain to wet the ground." 

Verbs have three moods, for the definition of which, refer to 
pages 85 — 6, 

Verbs have three tenses, the present,, past, and future. The 
present tense denotes an action begun and not finished^ The 
past tense denotes completed action. The future tense an 
anticipated action not commenced. 

The present and past tenses belong to the indicative mood. 

Verbs in the imperative and infinitive moods are always 
future, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR H9 

All verbs are to be considered as principals. And the 
definitions attached to those called auxiliaries, (which are 
mostly selected from philosophic treatises,) are as follows: 

To can, past tense could. To can a thing signifies to per' 
veiveit, to comprehend or know h*, to possess the requisite 
knowledge, ability or skill to manage it. The essential idea 
of the verbs see, and can, is precisely the same, to grasp^ 
seize, perceive, or comprehend external objects. 

May, or might, signifies to have> and exercise might, 
strength or physical power. An ignorant man may lift a 
heavyweight; an elephant may carry an immense load; an 
orator can make eloquent speeches; a poetess can enliven 
and animate our imaginations. 

Must, signifies to be in bondage or restraint, to be bound 
or compelled. I must depart this evening. Some power of 
circumstances to which it is necessary to conform, require me 
to depart. I yield, or acknowledge the obligation to de- 
part. 

Shall signifies to owe, to be under constrain^ obligation 
or duty. "The subject shall bear true allegiance to his 
king." "The citizen should be faithful to his country." 

To will, past tense would, signifies to wish, to exei % cise 
Volition. I will the thing to be so. I have the will of 
wish to have it done. In the extension of will to objects not 
having free volition, in its literal sense, it is analogous inher- 
ent principles or tendency. "A bullet in the water will 
sink, and a cork will swim; water will run downward^ and 
smoke wiZZ ascend." 

The difference between shall and will, when the real 
meaning of the words are understood is trifling. Shall, from 
its meaning, relates to external necessity, obligation or 
requirement, and will to inherent disposition, aptitude of 
tendency. "The moon will rise, this night in its own regu* 
lar course, and according to the inherent laws of its nature j 
it shall one day, be extinguished, in conformity with a su- 
perior law or power to which it shall and must yield obedi- 
ence." 

To have is to sway, control dispose of, in any way, to 
stand so related to a thing as, in any way, to afiect its abso- 
lute or relative condition. A man has these relations, not 
only to his possessions, but to his actions, duties, moral, 
social, and other connexions. 

The definitions of the others have been previously given* 
The verbs disguised by their contractions, and which are still 



120 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

retained in very frequent use in the imperative mood are, but,ifc 
else, tho, or though, unless, and yet. For the meaning of 
which, except but, refer to page 82. You will there find a 
part of its meaning; and the other is t&i*,- essentially different 
from that "But, to add, to superadd, to join, to projit,\vas 
formerly^vritten in different Yfoys,butte, 'bote, bot,boot. 

SrECIMEN OF PARSING. 

The boys will be learned. 

Will, an irregular active verb, signifying volition or wish- 
indicative mood, present tenso, agreeing with its agent boys 
in number and person, according to Rule L 

Be, an irregular active verb, signifying in this example, to 
take or hold some state of being— infinitive mood after will, 
[to being omitted,) future tense, because all verbs in the in- 
finitive mood are always ekher relatively or absolutely fu- 
ture, for one action cannot happen both after another, and 
at precisely the same time with it. 

Learned, a participial adjective, describing the desired 
condition of the boys, to which it refers;, Rule 5. 

You may go to meeting, if you ivill behave well. 

May, an irregular active verb, signifying to have, and td 
exercise might or physical power— indicative mood, it has a 
direct reference to its agent, present tense, it denotes the povy- 
er to go, is present with those to Whom the expression is 
applied. May is generally represented as denoting liberty 
or .permission : but this liberty in a philosophic point of view 
is delegated power. The liberty is the incident, not the es- 
sential principle. "If one man gives another a power of 
attorney, to authorize and empower him to do what he was 
not at liberty to do before, it is the same principle, This 
permission which may is supposed to express, is but the grant- 
ing of power from a superior." V 

Go, an irregular active verb, signifying to exert one s self; 
to exercise vigor; to move forward; it is the same as to say 
to work, or make way; infinitive mood, after may without to 
prefixed— future tense, because it denotes an action Hot yet 
commenced. 

Will, an irregular active verb, signifying volition or will; 
indicative mood, present tense, agreeing with you, according 

to Rule 1. 

Though the present tense is, strictly, without measure or 
continuance^ and may properly be considered the "dividing 
line" between the past and/tffare, yet the action is consider- 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 

<ed present from the commencement until the termination of 
it, whether that period is long or short. 

"God is from everlasting to everlasting." 

The verb is in this sentence "denotes an eternal present, 
ut each successive period, coeval with the ever advancing 
now." "At whatever time this sentence is uttered, from the 
creation to the end of the world, the verb is remains equally 
present and the assertion equally true." 

In the sentence "it lightens," the action denoted by this 
verb would hardly be considered present owing to its short 
continuance, "did not the idea extend to its repetitions." 
"The man says 'yes,' instantaneously, and without repeti- 
tions. In the assertion of the fact by another, the two ac- 
tions are so nearly cotemporaneous, that no purpose of utility 
would be answered in noticing the distinction. 4 " 

The past tense means action which is finished, or so far 
finished, as is necessarily contemplated in the expression. 
"Socrates was killed at Athens." 

"This verb was, affirms the state in which the mortal part 
of Socrates, for some time, preserved itself, after the act of 
destroying his life.; but which corporeal personality has since 
passed away, so that nothing earthly now remains to which 
the identity of Socrates can be affixed. The affirmation 
-therefore must be in the past tense." 

The boys are gone to school. 

The boys have gone to school* 

The boys are going to school. 

The boys are returning from school. 

All these verbs in italicks affirm alike in the present tense, 
the situation or condition of the boys. The boys exist, have, 
retain or sustain themselves hi the condition, which the par- 
ticiples denoting the finished or unfinished act of gone, going, 
or returning, has placed them. 

Have always being present tensb, explains the definition of 
"the perfect which conveys an allusion to the present" And 
so the pluperfect may be explained; had is the past tense, 
and the participle expresses the finished condition of that past 
action ; as, the tailor had finished my coat before I sent for 
it. The coat was as the act of making had made it; and 
all other circumstances respecting time, are only given to ar- 
rive at as nearly as possible when, as it relates to concomitant 
events. "It is therefore alike the simple past tense." 

The following examples will illustrate the future: 

M He is to finish, can finish, wislies to finish, shall finish, 
L 



122 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

may finish, has to finish, will finish, must finish, and ought to 
finish his Greek Grammar next month." In each of these 
examples, the first verb, in italicks is in the indicative mood y 
preset tense; and the second in roman letters, is in the in- 
finitive mood, future tense, because one action cannot hap- 
pen both after, and at precisely the same time with it. — - 
When, therefore, we say, He wishes now to embark next 
year for South America, it seems hardly correct to say both 
of these verbs express two actions, both in the present 
tense at the same time,' 1 

The Second future tense requires hut little explanation, 

"The two houses will have finished their business, when 
the king comes to prorogue them.'" 

The meaning of this sentence is? "The two houses will 
have their business finished, before the king will come to pro- 
rogtie them. Before the time which the king udlls to come. 1 " 

"Did the idea occur to the person quoted above, that his 
'future beyond a future,' happens to denote an action prior 
to that expressed by the verb comes in the present tense?" 

Our philosophic Grammarians think, "The phraseology 
called the second future tense, is a modern grammatical in- 
vention; artificial, inelegant, and very little used by good 
writers.'" 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The Ohio river is one thousand miles long. He that hath 
ears to hear, let him hear. Eternal spirit! my eye unscale j 
me what is substance teach, and shadow what. The thing 
they can't but purpose, they postpone. Peruse these exam- 
amples three times. The art of printing was invented three 
hundred and seventy one years ago. "Considering their 
many advantages, they have made little progress.*" "Their 
conduct and conversation, generally speaking, are rude." 

He, in the second example, may be parsed as nominative to the 
verb hath understood. Some grammarians consider the sentence 
ungram matical ; and render it ; Let him hear, that hath ears to hear.' 
This construction certainly weakens the meaning of the sentence. 
Me, in the third example, is the object of the preposition to under- 
stood ; eye is the object of unscale ; unscale is a verb in the impera- 
tive mood; ivhat, is equivalent to that which; thing understood to 
which that belongs, is the object of the verb teach; the second they 
understood, and identified by which, is nominative to is; thing un- 
derstood, to which that a part of the last compound what belongs, 
is the object of teach understood ; the second thing understood, and 
indentified by which, is nominative to is understood. The fourth 
example may be rendered thus : ttr rhey can not leave out or avoid 
to purpose or purposing the thing*, which identical thing, (living a 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 123 

godly life in this world,) they postpone. " The words in italicks,m 
the 1st, 5th, and 6th examples, are by some, considered anomalies, 
while others, in parsing them, apply the following: Rule. Nouns 
signifying extension,, duration, quantity, quality or value are used 
without a governing word. The anomaknie appearance of them 
may be taken off by rendering the constructions, as follow: The 
Ohio river is of the length of one thousand miles. Peruse these 
examples/or three times. The art of printing was invented at the 
time of three hundred and seventy one » 'st-by or gone years. Con- 
sidering and speaking in the 7th and 8ih examples are considered 
anomalous: that is, they do not directly refer to an y particular 
lioun or pronoun expressed or understood. 

In parsing the following examples of poetry the order of 
parsing may be abridged; as, 

"A peach : tree in Laleham garden, produced in one year 
1,560 fine peaches." 

A defining adjective referring to peach tree. Rule 4. — 
Peach-tree a noun, third person, singular; nominative to the 
verb produced. 

In preposition, showing the relation between peach-tree 
and garden. 

Produced a regular, active verb, indicative mood, 2d form 
of tense, agreeing in number and person, with its nominative 
"peach-tree." Rule 1st. 

As poetry is generally very elliptical, and requires many 
words to be understood and supplied in parsing it; I would 
recommend that your future exercise in this way, be chiefly 
confined to it. Always transpose the sentence, and supply 
the words necessarily understood, before you commence pars- 
ing a piece of poetry; by which it will be rendered as com- 
prehensible, and as easily disposed of, as prosaic writing. 

ON THE POWER OF CUSTOM. — Pope. 

Judge we by nature? habit can efface, 
Interest o'ercome, or policy take place: 
By actions? those uncertainty divides: 
By passions? these dissimulation hides: 
Opinions? they still take a wider range: 
Find, if you can, in what you cannot change. 

ON A TRUE FRIEND. — Cowper. 

Hast thou a friend? Thou hast indeed 
A rich and large supply, 
Treasure to serve thy every need, 
Well-managed till thou die. 



124 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

THE CREATOR'S WORKS ATTEST HIS GREATNESS. AddlSOn. 

What though, in solemn silence, al} 
Move round the dark terrestrial ball? 
What though, no real voice nor sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found? 
In reason^ ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious; voice, 
Forever singing as they shine, 
The hand that made us is Divine. 

SOUND IMITATING RELUCTANCE.-— Gray.. 

For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 
This pleasing anxious being e^er resigned; 
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind? 

INVOCATION , 

Not to my wish, but to my wants 

Do thou thy gifts apply; 

Unasked, what good thou knowest grant;- 

What ill, though asked, deny. 

LOVE HOLY, DIVINE, APPROVED OF GOD. Pollocfc % 

But why should I to thee of love divine? 

Who, happy, and not eloquent of love? 

Who holy, and, as thou art, pure, and not 

A temple where her glory ever dwells, 

Where burn her fires, and beams her perfect eye. 

THE FRAILTY OF MEN AND THINGS.— Dr. Young* 

How frail, men, things! how momentary both! 

Fantastic chase of shadows, hunting shades! 

The gay, the busy, equal, though unlike; 

Equal in wisdom, differently wise! 

Through flowery meadows, and through dreary waste, 

One bustling, and dancing, into death! 

The scenes of business tell us — what are new; 

The scenes of pleasure-^- what is all beside; 

There others we despise ; and here, ourselves, 

sunrise.— ^Thompson ^ 

But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Rejoicing in the east, The lessening cloud, 
The kindling azure, anq the mountain's brow, 
UlumM with fluid gold, his near approach 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 185 

Betoken glad. Lo, now, apparent all 

Aslant the dew-bright earth, and colored air, 

He looks in boundless majesty abroad; 

And sheds the shining day, that burnish'd plays 

On rocks, and hills, and tow'rs, and wandering stream*, 

High gleaming from afar. 

What in me is dark 



Illume ; what is low, raise and support. — Milton. 

SYNTAX. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which 
treats of the agreement and government of words, 
and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government 

Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another, in gender ', per son,number or case. 

Government is the power one word has over 
another, in causing that other word to be in some 
particular person, number, case, mood or 
tense. 

To know what is meant by agreement refer to page 46- 
For the definition of a simple and compound sentence,, 
see pages 76 and 77. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence, are 
the nominative or subject, the verb or attribute, 
or word that makes the affirmation, and the ob- 
ject or thing affected by the action of the verb ; ; 
as, "Religion raises a man above the w r orld 
while he is in it." In this example religion fa 
the subject of the affirmation ; ?*ai$es the attribute 
or word that makes the affirmation j and man* 
the object. 

A Phrase is two or more words rightly put 
together, making sometimes a part of a sentence 
and sometimes a whole sentence. 
i.2 



i*d A& EAS * AND LUCID GW® 3 

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words, 
in order to avoid monotony or unnecessary rep- 
etitions, and to express our ideas concisely, with 
ease, strength, and elegance. 

In the practical use of this figure, care should be taken 
that the ellipsis does not obscure the meaning, or weaken 
the force of the sentence. 

"The reg, reg-le, reg-ula, or rule, is the ^instrument hy 
which lines are drawn; 1 and the reg-se, rec-se, rek-s, rex y 
rule-man, or ruler, is he who uses theinstrumeat to draie the 
lines. The principle always supposes the ruling instrument 
to be straig-ht, streg-ht, reg-ht, or rig-htP 

If, for example, "with seeming plausibility, it might be as- 
sorted as a general rule, in our national geography, that the 
Rivers of the United States run to the south; but to this rule 
there must be thirty-one exceptions; because we distinguish 
thirty-one points of the compass, and there are rivers running 
towards each of these points; it is therefore a mistake to call 
it a rule?'' This is a definition given to rule by our philo- 
sophic philologists. I will now present the definition to 
which most of what we call rules of syntax are conformed* 

Rule.— A Rule describes the peculiar con- 
struction or circumstantial relation of words, 
which is almost universally correct, and to be ob- 
served. 

A thorough knowledge of the use and application of the 
following rules and notes, will be of essential utility, not on- 
ly in the analysis of the language, but in correcting and 
avoiding errors in composition, which, without such know- 
ledge, could not be performed. By observing the manner in 
which the examples under each rule and note are corrected, 
and by exercising the judgment freely, little difficulty will be 
experienced in knowing what word or words are wrong, and 
what language and rule to apply in their correction. After 
your judgment and opinion are formed, respecting the cor- 
rection of a sentence, then resort to the Key as a test. 

RULE I, 

A verb must agree with its nominative in nun** 
ber and person. 

Bread fruit trees grows in the South Sea Islands, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

Incorrect, because grows is a verb of the singular number, and 
its nominative trees is plural, which (verb) violates Rule 1. A 
verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. There- 
(ore,grows should be grow, and the sentence read ; Bread fruit trees 
grow in the South Sea islands. 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

The trees in the West Indies is always green. 

In Chili vast quantities of gold and silver, is washed down 
from the mountains by brooks and torrents. 

In Peru the plains is temperate, the beaches and vallies are 
hot, and the mountains is covered with eternal snow, while 
their bowels is flaming with fire. 

In Chili, orange trees is in bloom, and bears fruit through- 
out the year. 

The berries of the soap tree, which grow in the Antilles, 
answers all the purposes of washing. 

Marriages in Lapland depends entirely upon the parents,, 
who pay no regard to the inclinations of their children. 

The sincere is always esteemed. 

Thou may recite thy lesson. Thou can read. 

The houses of the Caledonians is circular, like a bee hive*. 

In Quito a constant succession of leaves, flowers, and 
fruits appear during the whole year, even on the same tree. 

The only vegetable in the island of Spitzbergen, are a wil- 
low, two inches high. 

The tops of the houses in Algiers is covered with earth,, 
and serve for gardens. 

RULE II, 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case ia 
governed by the noun which it possesses. 

"Thy brothers office is lucrative." 

Incorrect, because brothers and office are two nouns coming to* 
gether, the former implying possession, and not marked with aa 
apostrophe or mark of possession, which violates Rule 2. (Once,, 
for all, let me requestyou to repeat every rule and note quoted in. 
coirection.) Therefore, brothers should be marked thus; Thy 
brother's office, &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Mercurys diameter is 3224 miles. 

Venus mean distance from the suns centre is 68,368,00ft 
miles. 

The earths distance from the sun is said to be about 94,-. 
507,428 miles. 



128 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Virgils tomb is said to be placed at the entrance of the 
grotto Pansillippo. 

Faults are not less peoples* own because other? commit 
them. 

RULE III. 

Verbs, participles, and prepositions govern the 
objective case. And when a pronoun is the ob- 
ject of a verb, or participle, it should be in the ob« 
jective form of spelling. 

To poor we there is not much hope remaining. 

Incorrect, because we is a pronoun in the nominative case, and 
is the object of the relation expressed by the preposition £o, which 
violates Rule 3. Therefore, we should be u?. (Read the sentence* 
after it is corrected.) — The same form will answer for the correc- 
tion of a verb and participle by saying, it is the object of the ac^ 
tion, instead of the relation, &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who do you see? Who did he go with? Of who did 
you purchase these knives? Of a cutler^ he who resides in 
Chesnut street. Jesus sought none but they who had gone 
astray. Between him and she, the work was accomplished. 
She that is negligent reprove sharply. He is a man who 
I greatly respect. They who conscience and virtue support, 
may smile at the caprices of fortune. He who committed 
the offence, you should correct, not I who am innocent. The 
man who he raised from obscurity is dead. They who opu- 
lence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, can- 
not relish the simple pleasures of nature. Columbus by who 
America was discovered died at Valladolid 1506. Fulton 
is the man to who we are indebted for the invention of steam 
boats. To who we are indebted for the sublime discover/ 
of letters is not determined. 

RULE IV. 

Adjectives refer to nouns or pronouns express* 
ed or understood. 

RULE V. 

Participles refer to nouns, or pronouns, of 
which they express the action, condition, or de- 
scriptive quality. 

•The possessive case is frequently governed bj nouns understood 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 
RULE VI. 

Nouns and pronouns in apposition must be in 
the same case ; as, It was he; The general was 
saluted emperor, 

It is him. 

Incorrect, because him is a pronoun in the objective case, and it 
in apposition with it, a pronoun in the nominative, which violate* 
Rule 6. Therefore, him should he he y and the sentence read, "It is 
he." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

My friends gave me this present, them whom we visited 
yesterday. It certainly was not her. I took it to be he. 
Who do you think him to be? Thou art him who sold the 
mathematical instruments. If it was not him, who do you 
imagine it to have been? The S.igo palm-trees are them, 
which supply the Guanacas with all they need. Siebold 
is him, who says, the potatoe originated in South America, 
Thales was him, who first laid the foundation of Astronomy 
in Greece, If I were him I would study ornithology. I am 
certain it was not him; but I think it was her. Whatever 
Others do, let thou and I act wisely. 
RULE VII. 

When a direct address is made, and the per- 
son or thing spoken to, has no verb to agree with 
it; the noun or pronoun is in the nominative 
case independent 

RULE VIII. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
in a detached phrase, without any verb to agree 
with it, is in the nominative case absolute; as, 
He being afflicted, we sent for a physician. 

Him being sick, we do not go to school. 
Incorrect, because him is in the objective case, placed before & 
participle, and has no verb to agree with it, which violates Rule 9* 
Therefore him should be Ae. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Her having become poor, we are very dependant. 

i Whose gay top 

Shall tremble, him descending. 

Him destroyed 

Of won to what may work his letter loss ? &c< 



130 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns united by and, form an 
aggregate plural, and must have verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural ; 
as, Virtue and intelligence adorn their posses- 
sor. 

The freedom and independence of our Country depends 
on the virtue and intelligence of its citizens, and as it is im- 
proved our prosperity and happiness will be augmented. 

Incorrect, because depends is a verb of the singular number, and 
its nominative case is an aggregate plural united by and, which vio- 
lates Rule 9. It, is also incorrect, because it is a singular pronoun 
used to represent an aggregate plural, u Virtue and intelligence,'* 
which violates Rule 9. Is improved, is also incorrect, because it 
does not agree with its nominative they, which violates Rule 1, 
Therefore, depends should he depend, it should be they , and is im- 
proved should be are improved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Coarse grass, burnet, and linchen is the only vegetable of 
the south Georgia islands. 

Time and talents is given to man to be improved. To be 
of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence to- 
wards others, and to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure 
means of becoming peaceful and happy. The Ganges and 
the cow is highly venerated by the Thibetians. The tallow 
tree, the wax tree, and the varnish tree, grows in China. The 
refinement and virtuous character of a nation, is intimately 
connected with the moral and intellectual acquirements of its 
females. A poor wicked race, and the scum of different na- 
tions, is the present inhabitant of ancient Jerusalem. The 
number, magnitude, ana motion of the comets, belonging to 
our system, is imperfectly known. The pine and the fir is 
the principal forest trees of Sweden. It is said rye and 
wheat was first imported from Tartary and Siberia. Frost, 
rain, and heat assists in the decomposition of vegetables. 
RULE X, 

Two or more nouns in the singular number 
united by or or nor (or any conjunction except 
and) must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns 
agreeing with them in the singular; as, Idleness or 
ignorance makes its possessor miserable.* 

*Qf course, if or connects plural nouns, the verb must be plural* 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 131 

Knowledge or virtue are preferable to riches \ strive there- 
fore in youth to attain them. 

Incorrect, because are is a verb in the plural number used to ex- 
press not the action of both knowledge and virtue, hut of either 
the one or the other which violates Rule 10. Them is incorrect, 
because it is not properly used to represent both knowledge and 
virtue, but one or the other, which violates Rule 10. There- 
fore, are should be is; and them should be it. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Pain or sickness humble the pious contemplative chris- 
tian, they call forth his feeble orisons. When sickness, in- 
firmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. Rest or idleness are conspicuous traits 
in the character of the European Turks. It is said wheat 
straw or saw dust are so prepared as to make good bread. 
The finest cambric or Cambray linen come from the Nether- 
lands. The skin of the nein-deer, or the undressed skin of 
the sheep, with the wool inward, form the dress of a Lap- 
lander. Neither cold, frost, nor snow are experienced in 
the West Indies. Either work or play are preferable to idle- 
ness, because they furnish us with healthful exercise. The 
Urus or Bison are found among the Caucasian mountains. 

RULE XI. 

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
sometimes the nominative of a verb, or the ob- 
ject of a verb, participle, or preposition; as, To 
see the sun is pleasant. That my indiscretions 
should reach my posterity, wounds me to the 
heart. Boys love to play. 

RULE XII. 

The verbs which follow hid, can, do, dare, 
feel, hear, help, let, make, need, and see, are in 
the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed ; 
as, I can do it; instead of, I can to do it 

"I need not to solicit him to do a kind action." 

Incorrect, because solicit is a verb in the infinitive mood after 
need with to perfixed to it, which violates Rule 12. Therefore, to 
should be omitted. 



and if both a singular and plural, the rule to be observed in that 
case is on page 81. 



132 AM EASY AND LUCID GUIDfi 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

An eclipse of the moon can to happen only at the time of 
the full moon. The roses and flowers which grow on some 
islands in Lapland, make the inhabitants to believe them to be 
the terrestrial paradise. Let us to inform you, plants grow 
taost in the night. We see flowers to advance most in the 
<Jay, and especially in the meridian of life and heat. Dare 
wetobelieve 5 that from one single grain of wheat 576,840 
grains were produced at one growth? I heard him to say* 
there is a milk tree in South America, 100 feet high, and 7 in 
diameter. Bid him to know, that printing was invented in 
1462. 

NOTES. 

Note 1. Every verb when it is not in the infinitive mood must 
have a nominative either expressed or implied; as, Go, stay; 
i. e. Go ye, Stay ye. • 

He was a man whom I highly esteemed, and was generally 
loved by all who knew him. 

Incorrect, because was loved is a verb, not in the infinitive mood, 
and has no nominative either expressed or clearly implied, which 
violates note t. (Which note, with all others quoted^ repeat.) The 
nominative he should be inserted, before the verb was. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

These curiosities we have imported from China, and are 
similar to those brought from Africa. He was a man whose 
inclinations led him to be corrupt, yet had great abilities to 
manage business. He has gone home, but may return. The 
attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. 
Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned? 

Note 2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either 
of which may be considered the subject of the affirmation, it 
should agree with that which is the prior cause, or more na- 
turally the subject. 

"The cause of his failure was the heavy losses he had sus- 
tained.'" 

Incorrect, because was is a verb of the singular number, placed be* 
tvveen two nominatives, either of which mny be considered the sub* 
jectof the affirmation, but as it is evident the losses w r ere prior to 
Ihe cause in idea, it should agree with losses, which is plural, ac* 
cording to note 2d, and the sentence read thus : The cause ofhis fail* 
fere were the haavy losses he, had sustained.' 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

His chief occupation and employment were reading. The 
scrown of virtue is peace and honor. His business and desire 
are money making. The wages of sin are death. 

Note 3. When a noun or pronoun is the subject or ac- 
tor of a verb it must be in the nominative case. 
Thee must go to school. 

Incorrect, because thee is a pronoun in the objective case placed 
•as the actor of must go, which violates note 3. (Repeat it.) Thee 
should be thou, thus : Thou must go to school. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Thee may go. Her that is virtuous^ deserves esteem. 
How does thee do. Is thee well. Him who is careless will 
not improve. This is the person whom, they informed me, 
was my teacher. Who walked with you? Her and him. 
Him and her enjoy many comforts. Thee and I love good 
books. They know how to write as well as him; but he is 
a better botanist than them. William and him study. 

Note 4. Pronouns being ussd to supply the place of 
nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the 
sentence with the nouns which they represent. 

Dogs they are used to draw carriages, in Kamschatka. 

Incorrect, because the pronoun they, is used in the same member 
of the sentence with the noun dogs that it represents, which violates 
Rule 4. They should be omitted and the sentence read without it. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The climate of Chili it is one of the most delightful in the 
world. Many words they darken speech. The inhabitants 
of Terra Del Fuego they clothe themsslves in the skins of 
s^als. Rain, it never falls in some parts of Peru. The ma- 
chined, the fruit of which contains one of the worst poisons 
in nature, it grows in Jamaica. James his book The ripe 
ears of corn in the day time they incline to the south. 

Note 5. The Pronoun them should not be used instead 
of the adjectives these and those. 

Bring me them pears. 
Incorrect, because them is a pronoun used instead of the adjeo 
tive these or those, which violates Note 5. Them should be these or 
those. Perhaps no rule or note is more frequently violated than 
this. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Grant them requests. Bring me them books. Them boys 
studv Fluctions. Them apples- are delicious, 
M 



134 A N EAS* AND LTJCID GUlDfi 

Note 6. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand in number and gender. 

"No rules can supply the defects of genius, or inspire ther% 
where it is wanting." 

Incorrect, because them is a plural pronoun, ftsed to represent tha 
noun genius that is singular, which violates Note 6. Them should 
be it. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Genius may be greatly improved by art and study; but by 
it alone they cannot be acquired. The Chinese Tartars bum 
their dead,- and transport the ashes to eminences, where they 
inter it, and cover it with a heap of stones, The sun's pres- 
ence is one of the principal causes of heat, and their absence 
of cold, A great number of leaves. follow the sua in their 
course. 

A Remark. When the pronoun is corrected, if the Verb doe# 
not then agree with it, Rule I may be applied. 

Note 7. When the pronoun ivho, stands in a common 
relation, in a sentence, with thou, I,he, or with the noun which 
it represents, the verb to agree with it, must he of the same 
person, as the verbs to agree with them are; and they should 
all be alike. 

Thou who was here, lovest to admire creation. 

Incorrect, because was is a verb of the third ^rson and its nomi- 
native who, stands in a common relation with thou, which is of th©> 
second person, therefore, was, should be wast according to Note 7* 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Thou great First Cause, least understood! 
Who all my sense confined. 

lam the Lord, who maJceth all things; who stretches forth 
the Heavens alone; and who spread abroad the earth by my- 
eelf &c. Thou who understands mathematics, should teach 
them. : 

Note 8. When each or every relates to two or more sing- 
ular nominatives, although connected by and, the verbs must 
agree with each of them in the singular; as, every man and 
every woman is hastening to eternity. 

"Every leaf and every twig teem with life." 
fncorrect,because teem is a plural verb ;and although its nominatives 
are connected by and, yet they are preceded by every which brings 
each of them separately into consideration. Therefore according 
to Note 8, teem should be teems . 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Every buckle, girdle, necklace., and bracelet of a Grecian 
lady, are enriched profusely with jewels. Every city and 
every street in Scotland are adorned with rows of trees. Ev* 
ery man and woman, old and young, of New Holland, wants 
the two fore teeth of the upper jaw. Almost every spot of 
ground, every river, and every fountain in Greece, present the 
ruins of a celebrated antiquity, 

Note 9. The nouns which are qualified by cardinal nu- 
meral adjectives must agree in number with their adjectives; 
as, Twenty bushels; forty feet. 

Some figurative and anomalous expressions form an exception to 
this note; as, l A fleetrof forty sail; ^Two hundred hzal of cattle ," 

It is said, in Milton, a wild oat was ten foot high. 

Incorrect, because foot is a singular noun preceded by a cardinal 
plural adjective,, which violates Rule 9. Foot should he feet. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We read that a bunch of grapes weighed fifteen pound. — 
The diameter of Venus is 9498 mile. It is stated the swan 
lives about 200 year. We are informed that 1584 million 
of seeds have come from one elm in a year. Dr. Herschel 
judged the diameter of Ceres to be only 160 mile. In Dur- 
ham there is a rock weighing 60 or 70 ton so poised that it 
may be moved with one ringer. They raise 25 bushel of 
wheat an acre. The great bell of Moscow weighs 115 ton. 

Note 10, The adjectives this and that, refer to singular 
nouns; that and those refer to the former, mentioned, or fur- 
ther thing, and this and these to the last mentioned, or nearer 
tiling; a, each, every, cither, neither^ another, and one agree 
with nouns in the singular number only; as, each lady, eve- 
ry man, another book,; unless the adjectives, few, great, ma- 
ny ', hundred, thousand, intervene, or the plural noun conveys 
a collective idea; as a few men, a hundred men; every six 
years. 

The girls have been studying this two hours. 

Incorrect, because the adjective this refers to a plural noun> 
which violates Note 10. 2 'his, should be these. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Every bunches of the seje palm has 800 fruits. A pear- 
tree, in Scotland, protruded a number of young shoots, which 
in the same summer bore fruit, some of those as large 
os these on the elder branches. These kind of speculations 



136 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

is unprofitable. Those sort of mist-tree is most delightfuL 
Another books. A men. The waters of Chalco are sweet, that 
of Titzuco are brackish. 

Note 11. The adjectives each and every signify the 
whole of any number taken separately ; and either and neither 
signify only one or the other of two persons or things taken 
separately. 

"On either side of the river was the tree of life.'" 

Incorrect, because either is used to represent both sides of the 
river, which violates Note li. Either should be each. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Either town or village in China, has the advantage of each 
an arm of the sea, or a canal. Many handsome towns are 
situated on either side of the Delaware river. The king of 
Israel, and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them 
on his throne. 

Note 12. An should generally be used before a vowel 
or silent h, and «, before a consonant or u long, and the 
word one. 

There is an burning spring in Virginia. 

Incorrect, because an is used before a consonant, which violates 
Note 12. Jin should be a . 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Many an one lives on the bark of trees. An Russian is 
rarely seen out of his own country. When an Grecian lady 
enters an house, if she takes off her veil it is an sign of an 
friendly visit* A inhabitant of fixed residence is not to be 
found in Spitzbergen. The Bavarians have a university at 
Ingolstadt, and a academy of sciences at Munich. 

Note 13. Double comparatives and superlatives, and 
comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of com- 
parison should be avoided. See Note 5th, page 58th. 
"God made the lesser light to rule the night. 9 ' 

Incorrect, because lesser is a double comparative, which violatei 
Note 13. Lesser should be less. It is as incorrect to say lesser, at 
gooder, badder. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The Ganges is one of the most finest rivers in the world. 
The most dreadfullest winds, perhaps, are those called Sa~ 
moul or mortifying. Virtue confers the most supreme dig- 
nity on man, and it should be his chiefest desire. Schools, in 
Connecticut, are taught upon a very correct plan. The peas- 
ants of Transylvania are most perfect slaves. The most 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLSH GRAMMAR. 137 

highest hath created us for a purpose of his own glory. Ba- 
varia produces little corn, and lesser wine. The weather of 
France is more clearer and settled, than in England. 

In placing the members of a sentence in comparison, care should 
be taken that thej r admit of comparison. The members should be 
get in direct opposition. The following sentences are inaccurate; 
i '-Kire was the fairest of any of her (laughters.'" "The principles 
of the reformation was deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily 
eradicated. In the first example, Eve, instead of being compared 
with her daughters, is absurdly represented as one of them. The 
sentence should be, Eve was fairer than any of her daughters. The 
second example, contains neither comparison nor literal meaning* 

Note 14. The comparative decree of an adjective or 
adverb should be used in comparing two objects; and the su- 
perlative, when more than two are compared; as, He is the 
wiser of the two; She is the wisest of the three. 

She is the sweetest singer of the two. 

Incorrect, because sweetest is a superlative adjective used in the 
comparison of two objects, which violates Note 14. Sweetest should 
be sweeter. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

"Platinum is the heavier of all the metals. Of the two metals 
gold and silver, gold is the heaviest. Which is the best 
reader of the two. Which is the better writer of the three 
Which of the two roads is the best. 

Note 15. Adjectives should not be applied to the wrong 
nouns, but when two or more belong to one noun, that which 
morel y nearly relates to the noun, should be placed next 
to it; as, "a pair of new shoes," "a rich old man." 
A good piece of land. 

Incorrect, because the adjective good is applied to the wrong 
noun, which violates Note 15. It should be a piece of good land. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

That is a good piece of land. Please to cal! the two first 
classes. Read the three first lines of the 7th psalm. He 
bought an elegant piece of broad cloth. Anew pair of shoes. 
The two next classes. 

Note 16. The present-imperfect participle with the ad- 
jective the before it, must have the preposition of after it. 
Both the and of should be used, or both omitted; as, "By 
the observing of truth, you will command esteem," or, by "ob- 
serving truth," &c. This note should also be observed, when 
$he participle is preceded by a pronoun. 

The instructing studious children is a pleasing tstsk, 
u2 



!38 A3* EASY AND LUCID GBIKS 

* Incorrect, because the participle instructing is preceded by the, 
and not followed by q/*, which violates Note 16. The instructing 
o/, Sec. or, Instructing studious children, &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Promoting of temperance societies has been greatly bene- 
ficial. The viewing the great Atlantic ocean, strikes the 
mind with grandeur, magnificence, sublimity, and yet awe. 
Framing of the constitution of the U. S. was in 1787. The 
worshipping the Ganges as a Deity, is common inHindostan. 
A strange custom of India is the burying widows alive. 

Note 17. An adjective should not be used to express the 
manner of a verb ; nor an adverb to define, or describe a noun* 
Adverbs should mostly be employed to modify the sense of 
other adjectives; and they are to be situated before adjectives, 
or adverbs, after verbs, or between the words of a compound 
tense. 

Ther* are some exceptions to this note. The easy flow and per* 
spicuity of the phrase, should be chiefly regarded. When the word 
exceeding is connected to an adjective or adverb not ending in ly y 
it should have ly added to it ; as, exceedingly wise : But when the 
adjective or adverb with which it is connected, has that termina- 
tion, the ly should be omitted ; as, "He acted exceeding imprudent- 
ly." 

She writes neat. 

Incorrect, because neat is an adjective used to express the man- 
ner of the verb writes, which violates note 17. Jfeat should b© 
neatly, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

InHindostan it rains almost constant for three months in 
the year. The Nauacs eat unreserved all animal fiesb, ex- 
cept human, even that of animals, which die a naturally death* 
The blowing cave of Virginia, emits constant, a current of 
air, so forcibly, that it keeps the weeds continual prostrate 
for 20 yards before it. The study of grammar should be 
previously to that of Rhetoric, The giant's cause way of 
Ireland, is a remarkably curiosity, consisting of many thou- 
sand basaltic pillars, most in vertical positions. His con- 
duct was conformably to his appearance. We saw him pre-* 
viously. He was pleasing not often, because he was not 
vain. These things should be never separated. We sympa- 
thize with thee, knowing thy often infirmities. 

Note 18. As two negatives are generally equivalent ta 
an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish toex-* 
press a negative meaning* 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 

When one of the negatives is joined to another word it forms a 
pleasing variety of expression ; as, u His language is not ^gram- 
matical." 

"I do not know nothing about it." 

Incorrect, because not and nothing are two negatives used to ex- 
press a negative meaning, which violates Note 18. The sentence 
should be, I know nothing about it, or, I do not know any thing 
about it. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He does not live from Philadelphia. I did not see nobo- 
dy there. There are not no people more hardy than the Lap- 
landers. There cannot be nothing more pleasing to a phi- 
lanthropic mind, than to behold useful science prospering.- 
Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. No- 
thing never affects him so much as trouble. 

Note 19. When the second tense (called imperfect) and 
perfect participle, are different in their spelling, the second 
tense must not be connected to have or had in forming any of 
the compound tenses. And as the perpect participle alone 
should never have a nominative, it should not be used instead 
of the verb. 

The sciences have rose to a very great height in France. 

Incorrect, because rose is a verb of the second tense joined to 
have in forming a compound tense, which violates Note 19. Rose 
should be risen. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I have saw it stated, that acids, will dissolve metals. A 
traveller reports he seen not one single tree of natural growth, 
on the island of Nantucket. Some people have took the 
pains to visit the 860 mineral springs of Sweden. It has 
fell to the lot of few countries to be so little favored, as that 
of Thibet* Babylon is fell and it is said not a stone is left, 
to tell where it anciently stood, Japan has been terribly 
shook by earthquakes. By too eager a pursuit, he run a 
great risk of being disappointed. The French language ia 
jpoke in every kingdom of Europe. 

NOTES ON THE TENSES, 

Note 20. When we refer to past actions, and no part of 
the time remains in which they took place; the second or im« 
perfect tense should be used ; out if any portion of the time, 
in which we declare the thing has been performed, is yet re* 
maining, the third or perfect tense should be employed. 



140 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

The perfect tense may mostly be used where either the author or 
work, are still in existence; but when neither, the imperfect should 
be used. 

The Druid priests have claimed great powers. 

Incorrect, because have claimed is a verb of the third tense, used 
to represent an action, no part of which now remains. Therefore, 
Note 20, is violated. Have claimed should be claimed. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

George Washington has been the first president of the IL 
S. "Jesus Christ has prophesied that Jerusalem should be 
trodden down of the Gentiles." Philosophers made great 
discoveries in the present century. We read to-day that the 
Thibetians are sometimes buried in a coffin of gold. Poland 
has been once a powerful kingdom of Europe. Our friends 
have visited Philadelphia and New York last summer. Pla- 
to, Aristotle, and Eudoxus have contributed much to the 
improvement of astronomy. 

Note 21. Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, 
expectation, or command, though in the past tense, should bo 
followed by the future tense of the infinitive mood; as, I de- 
sired to understand Mathematics. But when the infinitive 
mood is used to denote something as antecedent to the time 
of the preceding verb, the past tense should be employed; as,. 
"It would have given me great pleasure to have seen him." 
See pages 94 and 120. 

I desired to have seen the burning spring of Virginia. 

Incorrect, because to have seen is a verb in the infinitive mood 
past tense, following a verb that expresses desire, which violates 
Note 21. To have seen should he to see. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He intended to have seen, before this, the peak of the moun- 
tain, where he might gather snow with one hand and flowers 
with the other. He desired to have gone to Scotland in order 
to see the houses which are 13 or 14 stories high. We ex- 
pected to have visited, ere this, the cabinet of rare curiosi- 
ties in Austria. He was commanded to have inspected the 
library at Vatican, which contains 500,000 volumes. They 
hoped last year to have explored the wonderful cavern in 
Kentucky. To see him would have afforded me pleasure all 
my life. This is a work which proves itself to be written 
many years ago. I hope I shall be ready in less than an hour. 

Note 22. Participles connected by a conjunction should 
be in the same form, and when connected to a verb, should 
be changed to verbs of like mood and tense with that to which, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141 

they are connected; as, "By approving and practising virtue,, 
we *gain esteem." 

'To be kind to others and doing as we would be done by is 
the golden rule."' * 

Incorrect, because the participle doing is conneoted by a con- 
junction to the infinitive verb, present tense, "to be," which: vio- 
lates Note 22. The participle doing, should be changed to the in* 
finitive verb, to do. 

FALSE SYNTAX* 

To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately 
in the pursuit of them, is the way to attain success. The 
multitude wondered, when they saw those who had been blind,, 
seeing, and those who had been lame to walk. Professing 
regard and to act differently discovers abase mind. 

Note 23. General and immutable truths should be ex- 
pressed in the present tense, as, "whatever is useful is good. 1 * 
"My opponent would not believe that virtue was always ad- 
vantageous." 

Incorrect, because was is a verb in the past tense used to represent 
a general and immutable truth, which violates Note 23. Wa* 
should be is. 

FALSE SYNTAX, 

God was from everlasting to everlasting. The doctor in 
his lecture said fever always produced thirst. The preacher 
said whatever was useful, was good. He did not know that 
the sun always rose in the east. The boys did not know that 
8 and 20 were equal to 28. 

Note 24. When actions are contemporary, or when they 
will be completed at the same time, they should be represent- 
ed in the same form of tense. 

"Fierce as he mov'd his silver shafts resound." 

Incorrect, because mov^d is a verb in the first future tense, used 
to represent an action cotemporary with that of the verb resound 
in the present tense, which violates Note 24. Mov y d should be 
moves. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him portion'd maids, apprenticM orphans blest, 

The young who labor, and the old who rest. 

The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportuni- 
ties which the imprudence, weakness, or necessities of prin- 
ces, have afforded it, to extend its authority. It would have 
afforded me great pleasure, to visit the many excellent semi« 
naries of Connecticut at an earlier period. To be censured 



142 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

by him, would soon have proved an insuperable discourage* 
ment Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. It 
would on reflection have given me great satisfaction, to re* 
iieve him from that distressed situation. When I last saw 
him he had grown considerably. 

Note 25, When different past actions are represented 
in a sentence,one of which must have been prior to the other, 
the fourth or pluperfect tense should be employed to represent 
the prior past action. 

"And he that was dead sat up and began to speak." 
Incorrect, because was is a verb of the second or imperfect tense, 
used to represent a past action prior to that denoted by the verb 
sat, which violates note 25 . Was should be had been. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

After we visited the Royal Library at Munich, which con- 
tains 400,000 volumes, we returned to our retired and peace- 
ful habitations. The institution of Sabbath schools, by 
Robert Raike-Sj was three years in existence, before a society 
was formed in London, Thales, was the first of the Greeks, 
who taught that the earth was round, which before was con. 
sidered as an extensive plain, The Roman Empire was en. 
larged to its greatest extent before Ptolemy composed his 
-system of Geography, 

Note £6, When a verb is preceded by if though, unless, 
&c. and has reference to future time, it is future tense, and 
should not vary to agree with its nominative; but when a 
verb is preceded by if though, unless, &c, and has no refer, 
ence to future time, it should be in the present tense, and 
vary in its spelling to agree with its nominative. See pages 
91, 102, and 103. 

t If he sees the houses of Algiers from the ocean apparently 
rising one above another, he will be highly delighted. 

Incorrect, because sees is a verb varied in its spelling to agree 
with its nominative, preceded by if, and used in a sentence that has 
reference to future time, which violates the first part of Note 26. 
(Sees should be see. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not com- 
ply, unless he advances more forcible reasons. If Pekin bo 
the most populous city irj the world, it is not the handsomest, 
He will visit the gold coast unless something prevents. If 
every parish in Scotland have a school for indigent chil- 
dren, it is certainly a very benevolent and useful institution, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAFL 143 

Note 27* When elliptic tenses, are connected by con- 
junctions, when they have one nominative, and stand equal- 
ly related to a following verb or participle, care must be ta- 
ken that the following verb or participle, will properly form 
each of the preceding elliptic tenses. 

"This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, 
is, or shall be, published. 

Incorrect, became has stands equally related to the participle 
published, -with ij or shall be^ but the tense 'has published,' would 
Violate Note 27. It should be, any book that has been i is, or shall 
be published. 

FALSE SYNTAX; 

There are principles which ever have, and ever will, in- 
cline him to offend. I have not, nor shall not, consent to a 
measure so unjust. The intentions of some of these philos- 
ophers, nay, of many, might and probably were good. In 
Europe the arts and sciences have, and are carried to 
great perfection. The pure, sharp air which the Swedes 
breathe, renders and has preserved them from epidemical 
diseases. In several provinces of Spain, the country peo- 
ple have, and do eat, for their Common fcod, coarse bread 
steep2d in oil, and seasoned with vinegar. 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the proper use of the 
tenses. In the use of verbs, words, and phrases, which in point of 
time relate to each other, a due regard to that relation Should be 
carefully observed. The proper application of the tenses depends 
very much upon a clear understanding of the sentence. Perhaps 
the most certain rule that can be laid down, and which is to be 
considered sovereign of the foregoing^ (which are more or less ex- 
ceptionable) is the following wery general one. 

Note 28. Observe particularly what the sense requires. 

The next new years day I shall be at school three years. 

Incorrect, because shall be is a verb of the first future tense, used 
to represent a future action, which is posterior to the future idea 
conveyed by the expression, new yearns day, therefore, shall 6e, ac J 
cording to Note 28, should be shall have been. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me now three days. They maintained that scrip- 
ture conclusion, that all mankind rise from one head. Must 
it not be expected, that he would have defended an authori- 
ty which had been so long exercised without controversy? 
His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he would 
have died before our arrival, The first Grecian map, was 



144 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Anaxamander's, supposed to be a general map of the known 
world, at that time. 

Note 29. Different relations and different senses should 
he expressed by different prepositions, though connected with 
the same verb, adjective or noun. In the use of preposi- 
tions great care should be paid to their meaning; and to the 
meaning of the words or sentences, with which they are con- 
nected. 

Illustration : We are disappointed of a thing, when we expected 
it,and cannot obtain it, and disappointed in a thing, when we have 
obtained it, and find it does not answer our expectation. In some 
-cases it is difficult to determine to which of two piepositions the 
preference is to be given; as, "Expert at, or expert in a thing, &c. 
The easy flow and perspicuity of the language should be chiefly re- 
garded. 

"Such conduct is a diminution to their greatness. 1 " 

Incorrect, because the preposition £o, does not appropriately ex- 
press the relation of the preceding sentence,which violates Note 29. 
To should be of 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He is resolved of going to Philadelphia. They should be 
informed in some parts of his character. Until lately he nev- 
er thought on the Caledonian's clothing themselves in the 
bark from a tree. The manner into which the Birmans is 
punished, is putting the head against water, or the hand in 
hot oil, or melted lead. He does bitterly dissent against the 
Birman mode in burning their dead. The Thibetians are 
governed with the grand Lama, who is adored from them, 
and from the more remote Tartars, he is absolutely regard- 
ed as the Deity himself. Our prejudices to the Hindoo 
mode in worship is great. The Chinese Tartars are unac- 
quainted to money, and trade only from barter. The walls 
about ancient Jerusalem were so wide that six coaches might 
go abreast over them. The dead of Turkey are perfumed 
by incense, and buried with a cloth open at top and bottom, 
that the deceased may sit up and converse to the angels of 
death. The first proposal was essentially different, and in- 
ferior to the second. 

Note 30. When several phrases, connected by the con- 
junction and expressed or understood, are made nominatives 
to a verb, the verb must be plural; as, "To be temperate in 
eating and drinking, to use exeicise in the open air, and to 
preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the 
best preservatives of health."" But when the whole sen- 



TO A KNOWtfcD&fc OK EN&LISH 'GRAMMAR. \4% 

fence forms but one nominative, conveying unity of idea, the 
Verb must fee singular; as. "That warm climates should ac- 
celerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its du- 
ration, is very reasonable to believe." 

"To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required 
<ofall men." 

Incorect, because are is a veVb of the plural number, and the 
•foregoing part of the sentence which is its nominative, is singular, 
'conveying unity, therefore are should be is, according to Note 30, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

To understand the spherical figure of the earlh; its rota- 
tion on its axis; the position of its axis, with regard to the 
celestial luminaries; and its revolution round the sun, is the 
fundamental principles of geography. 

That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and 
bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to 
be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit not any 
-doubt in a rational and well-informed mind. 

From a fear of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the 
practice of precepts, which the heart approves and embracer., 
mark a feeble and imperfect character. 

Note 31. To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to ex- 
press our ideas in few words, an ellipsis of some words is 
frequently admitted. Instead of saying-, "He was a learned 
tnan, he was a wise man, and he was a good man; we use the 
ellipsis and say, "He was a learned, wiso, and good man."— 
But when the omission of words would obscure the meaning, 
-or weaken the force of the sentence, or be attended with an 
impropriety, they should be expressed. In the sentence, 
* We are apt to love who love us," the word them should be 
supplied. 

'"A beautiful field and trees." 

Incorrect, because the adjectives a and beautiful have the some 
relation to the noun trees, as to the nounfield; and it is absurd to 
say, "a beautiful trees." According to Note 31, it should be, "a 
beautiful field and fine trees;" or, "beautiful fields and trees," then" 
the construction would be clear and regular.— Some of the exam- 
ples under this rule, may be partly corrected by some of the fore- 
going rufos. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The soil of Cambodia produces great quantities bf corn, 
of rice^ and of various medicinal drugs. In Egypt are found 
caverns ton taining mummies, or embalmed bodies, found in 
coffins standing upright, where it is supposed have continu- 

N 



146 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

ed 4000 years. The capital punishments of Abyssinia ar© 
crucifixion, and flaying alive, and stoning, and plucking out 
the eyes. The fear of death, nor the hope of life, could 
make him submit to a dishonest action. Cape Verd is sq 
called, because it is always covered with green trees and with 
mossy grounds. In Pckin not a chimney is seen rising above 
the roofs of houses. The summer at Pekin is exceedingly 
hot, and winter cold. No city in the world can vie witL 
London in the multitude of its shops, and display of their 
commodities. Those languages are called living, which are 
still spoken in some place or country, and may be learned bj 
conversation. 

ADDITIONAL NOTES. 

These notes will occasionally be found useful, ioth in 
parsing and correcting false syntax. They should be care- 
fully perused by the student. 

Note 32. The infinitive mood has often the nature of a 
noun expressive of the action itself which the verb signifies^ 
and it should not be used where an action only is intended, 
without regard to time, or where a noun, pronoun, or parti* 
ciple would be moi.s elegant and expressive ; as, "He doubts 
ed them to be since re," should be, "He doubted their sin* 
cerity. 

Note 33. When several verbs in the infinitive mood are 
connected by a conjunction, the preposition to is placed be- 
fore the first only, and understood to the rest; as, "It is our 
duty to fear God and keep his commandments," "and to 
keep," &,c. 

Note 34. The infinitive mood following the verb see? 
(signifying to take care of,) and the verb dare, to challenge, 
should be preceded by the preposition to; as, "I will see to 
have it done." 

Note 35. The preposition /or should not be used im- 
mediately before the infinitive mood ; as, He went to so® 
Philadelphia, not for to see. 

Note 36. When, nouns in the possessive case follow 
each other in quick, succession, the possessive sign is gener- 
ally annexed to the last, and understood to the rest: as, 
Margaret and SaralAbook; "This was my father, mother, 
and uncle's advice." But when a pause is proper, and the 
governing word not expressed, the sign shoukf be applied to 
the first possessor only, and understood to the rest;* as, "I 
reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor." \ 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 147 

Note 37. When the possessor is described by a circum- 
locution, the possessive sign should generally be applied to 
the last term only; as, "The duke of Bridge waters canal; 
The bishop of LandofF's excellent book." "This usage, 
however, should generally be avoided. The words do not, 
literally, convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say 
this is the governor of Ohio's house. " 

Note 38. Little explanatory sentences should not come 
between the possessive case and the noun which governs it, 
"She was much pleased with the countryman's, as she call- 
ed him, obliging disposition." Corrected : "with the oblig- 
ing disposition of the countryman, as she called him." 

Note 39. When the possessive case has an awkward or 
unpleasant sound, it should be changed to the objective; as, 
"It was signed on the committee's behalf — should be, on be- 
half of the committee." 

Note 40. When the preposition of precedes several 
nouns or pronouns successively, occasioning a harshness in 
the pronunciation, one or more of them should be changed to 
the possessive; as, "The severity of the distress of 'the son of 
the king affected the people." Corrected: 'of the king'3 
son.' 

Note 41. Its, the possessive case of i7, should not be 
used for it is, or His; as, its our right ; instead of it is our right, 
or His our right. 

Note 42. Participles frequently govern the possessive 
case, as explained on page 61. A participle with its ad- 
juncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive, or 
participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, 
or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "Taking from an- 
other without his knowledge or assent, is called stealing;" 
"He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." 

Note 43. A present-imperfect participle, preceded by a 
preposition, is governed by it as a noun in the objective case ; 
and frequently as a participle governs the following objec- 
tive case, agreeably to Rule 43 j as, By entreating them, ha 
consented. 

Note 44. The adjectives all, other, &c. should not be 
used when a comparison is made between two persons or 
things only; as, "He was wiser than all men," should be, 
**than any man," or, "than any other man." 

Note 45. The adjectives each s pther, apd the preposi- 



|4g AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

t i on between, should be used in relation to two persons or 
things only ;as* The two cities resemble each other. There 
is much similarity between them. But when three or more 
are implied, the adjective one another, and the preposition 
among should be employed; as, "The builders of Babel urn 
^erstood not one another^s language, which produced much, 
confusion among them." 

Note 46, The conjunction than (and not but) should bo 
used after an adjective or adverb of the comparative degree, 
or after the adjectives other or more; as, <*He came home 
sooner than we expected ;" "We had no other expectation 
$/ian that j" "He has little more of the great man than the 
title.\ 

Note 47. Adjectives are often used to modify the mean- 
ing of other adjectives, and to express the quality of things 
in connexion with the actions by which that quality is pro- 
duced; as, A white linen shawl; "The clay burns white; The 
eggs boil hard." 

Note 48, The pronoun who, immediately following the 
conjunction than, must be in the objective form of spelling; 
as, "Let us honor our parents, than whom none ought to be 
more dear to us," "The phrase than whom % is, however,, 
avoided by the best modern writers." 

Note 49. Interjections require a noun or pronoun of the 
first person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pro- 
nonn o[ the second or third person; as, "Ah! me; Oh! thou. n 

Note 50, The word what is sometimes improperly em- 
ployed instead of that; as, ffThey would not believe but what 
I was in fault." Corrected, but that. 

Note 51, The words whichsoever, whatsoever, &fc. are 
sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the cor? 
responding nouns; as, On which side soever he went, the 
people were pleased. 

Note 52, Who, whomever, and whomsoever are always, 
placed before the verbs which govern them in the objective 
,case; as, Heivhom we love has returned home. 

Note 53. When the pronoun who begins a sentence, the 
noun which it represents is understood; as, "Who goes about 
doing good, should be received;" that is, the man who, &c i 

Note 54. Nouns signifying distance, time, when, how 
long,Sfc. and the word home are often governed by a prepo? 
uitioii zfnderstQpd; as s lie vyalkea! two miles; Emily was four 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLSH GRAMMAR. 149 

years at West-town; They expect to start to Providence to- 
morow; He came home yesterday; that is, walked through 
the space of two miles; during four years; on to-morrow; to 
home on yesterday. 

Note 55. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantify, 

quality or value, are by many grammarians parsed without a go- 
verning word ; as, He was in Philadelphia ten years ago; The 
Delaware is 300 miles long, &c. See page 123. 

Note 5o. Tt is generally considered preferable to apply 
the adverbs, hither, thither, and whither, to verbs signifying 
motion, instead of here, there, and where; as, Whither shall 
werly? He came thither; whither they go. "But in famil- 
iar style, these expressions are so far sanctioned as some- 
times to be admissible." 

Note 57. The adverb how should not be used before 
the word that, or instead of it; as, Peter was informed how 
that every parish in Scotland has a school for indigent chil- 
dren; how should be omitted. 

Note 58. The adverbs roll ere, here, and there, should 
not be used for whereby, herein, therein; or when a preposi- 
tion and pronoun would be more elegant and expressive; as, 
4 An account was drawn, in which, (not where) their suffer- 
ings were represented.' "The city wherein or in rrhiclt they 
dwelt, not vjfiere." 

Note 59. As the adverbs hence, thence, and -whence lit- 
erally supply the place of a noun and preposition, it is a 
solecism to employ a preposition in conjurction with theme 
"From whence it follows: They came from i'tcncc yester- 
day." Better, 'whence it follows j' 'They came the nee." 

Note 60. Some conjunctions require correspondent con- 
junctions; as, 

1. Though, or although requires yet or nevertheless as a 
corresponding conjunction. 



either, 


or, 


neither, 


nor, 


as, 


so,) 


so, 


asA 



implying a comparison of quality,, 

as, asJ . , ,. . r v 

( implying a comparison m cquiany.. 

so, that, expressing a consequence. 

Note 61. The adjectiro such, used in a comparison, ;i 



2f2 



150 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

quires the conduction as following if ; as, "He is well ac- 
quainted with such stories as these. But if no comparison is 
intended, that should follow,' as, His ways were such that no 
poison admired him. 

Note 62. The adverb not should follow whether, or x 
when a contrast is intended; as, 'He would proceed whether, 
he obtained permission or not 7 — 'not whether he obtained 
permission or no. 1 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX ADAPTED TO THE LAST THREB 

NOTES. 

Solid peace and contentment, consist neither in beauty or 

riches. 

Incorrect, because oris placed to, correspond \yith neither, which 
yioJates Note 60. Or should be nor. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The task is so great as I fear I cannot perform if. Though, 
he was affable^ but he was not learned. The place is not as 
pleasant as we expected. This writing is not as good as 
that. The condition of the obligation is such, as we need 
not fear to purchase. It matters not whether he will go or 
no. The Chinese Tartars have neither towns, villages or 
houses. 

Note 63. More than one preposition referring to the 
same noun, should not be used except in forms of law, or 
where great exactness is requisite. The following sentence 
is incorrect: 'Though virtue borrows no assistance j/rom. ye 4 
it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune."* 
Corrected, 6 fiom the. advantages of fortune, and by them? 

Note 64. The preposition among should not be used 
before the adjectives each, every, either, one, another, or 
such as convey unilyof idea; as, The same instinct is found 
in every kind offish, not among, <5fc. 

Note 65. A preposition should always precede the word 
which it governs, if the arrangement of the sentence will ad-, 
rnit it, and it should not be placid at the end of a sentence, 
when it can be avoided; as, With whom, did he walk ? Not 
whom did he walk with? 

Note 68. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, 
when they follow verbs or participles which signify motion 
from one place to another; as Samuel went to Pekin. At is 
generally placed before single houses, cities, and villages, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 151 

which are in distant countries; as, I have been at Lancaster. 
"He lives at Park-place." They reside at Constantinople. 
In is set before countries, cities, and large towns j as, He 
lives in Scotland, in Pekin, in York. 

Note 67. When a noun of the singular number has an- 
other noun joined to it by a preposition, good writers gener- 
ally use a singular verb and pronoun to agree with it; as, 
"The side A, with the side B, composes the triangle;" "Pros- 
perity with humility, renders its possessor truly amiable." 
Hume, Priestly, and some other writers, make the verb plu- 
ral. Murray gives preference to the singular. 

Note 68. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, sig- 
nifying many, may have a verb ox a pronoun agreeing with 
it, either of the singular or plural number; yet not without 
regard to the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea; 
as, "The meeting wa s large;" 'The parliament is dissolved; 1 
"Trie nation t* powerful;" "My people do not consider^ 
they have not known me;" "The multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure, as their chief good;" "The council were divided 
in their sentiments." 

The foundation on which this rale stands, is, as a grammarian* 
justly observer "rather sandy. It appears not to be based on tho 
principles of the language; and, therefore, it might, perhaps, ho 
better to reject than to ratlin it. Its application is quite limited. 
In m my instances, it will not apply to nouns of multitude. The 
existence of such a thin^ as "unity or plurality" of idea, as appli- 
cable to nouns of thiscjass, is diu'dfal. It is just as correct to say, 
"The meeting: wxi divided wit; sentiments," as to say, "the meet- 
ins; were divided in .their sentiments." Both are equally support- 
ed by the genius of our language, and by the power of custom."- 
See page 32. 

Note 6d. A pronoun should not be used instead of a 
noun, when it would occasion ambiguity iu the meaning of 
the sentence; btU the noun should be repeated. "We see 
the beautiful variety of color in the rain-bow, and are led to 
consider the cause of it." This sentence is rendered en tire- 
• ly ambiguous by the use of the pronoun it, "whether the va- 
riety, the color, or rain-bow itsclfis the object of considera- 
tion;" — the noun variety should be repeated; thus, "to con- 
sider the cause of that variety? 

Note 70. When a pronoun, is employed in ( the same sen- 
tence with two or more nouns, and represents only one of 
them, to prevent ambiguity, it should be placed as near ta 
that which it is intended to represent, as the construction of 
the sentence will admit: The following sentence is, incoiK 



152 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

rect. "There are many people in China, whose support is de- 
rived almost entirely from rice." "It should be in the em- 
pire of China there are many people whose support, &c." 

Note 71. The object of a verb should not be improper- 
ly intercepted by the intervention of a preposition; as, "I 
must premise wiihthme circumstances j" the preposition with 
should be omitted. 

Note 72. All the parts of a sentence should correspond 
to each oiher; a regular and dependent construction through- 
out, should be carefully preserved. 

Perhaps to the young student, this note, at first view, may 
appear to be too general to be of much importance. But 
he will find by practical experience, that it comprehends all 
the preceding rules and notes, and is calculated to ascertain 
the grammatical construction of many expressions, which no 
one of the preceding, independent of this, can sufficiently 
explain. 

CRITICAL REMARKS. 

The following examples are inelegant and incorrect. 'Ask rao 
never so much dowry and gift,' 'If I make my hands never so clean. * 
^Charm me never so wisely.' In all these examples ever should bo 
used instead of never. 

The adverb there is often used in the beginning of a sentence, a» 
an expletive or redundant word; as, ''There is a person at the 
door.' -''There are many lovers of literature present ;' which would 
be better expressed by saying, 'A person is at the door,' 'Many 
lovers of literature are present.' There sometimes gives a small de- 
gree of emphasis, but, when strictly applied, it mostly follows the 
verb; as, 'The man stands there.' 9 

Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of nouns; as in 
the following example : 'In 1687, he erected it into a community 
of regulars, since when it has begun to increase,' &c. It should be 
^sinoe which time? 

A nice distinction is sometimes effected by the use or omission of 
the adjective a. If we say, 'He behaved with a little reverence, op 
4 he behaved with little reverence;' by the former, we rather praise 
him; by the latter we dispraise him.' The expression, a black 
and a white coat, signifies ablack coat and a white coat; but a black 
and white coat, signifies the two colors of one coat. 

The following very common expressions are exceptionable; 'I 
was asked a question ;' 'He was offered a large sum of money.* 
They are incorrect because a nominative not literally the correct 
one is employed; also, because the passive verb is placed to govern 
the objective case; they should be, 'A question was put to me;' C A 
ljirge sum of money was offered to him.' 

An adverb should not be placed between the words of the innni* 
fire naood; the following example i8 faulty in this pespect: 'To* 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 153 

patiently wait for diyine counsel.'— To wait patiently, or Patient-. 
If to wait, Sec. . 

The word ^cep* is far prefer lble to other than. 'It adorned no, 
cure oMer than (except) amputation. Except is also preferable to 
all but. They were happy all but the stranger. They wera all 
happy except the stranger. t . 

"Our language appears to want a conjunction adapted to family 
iar style equivalent to notwithstanding. The words/or a// Mctf seem 
to be too low." In regard that, is sometimes used, but in the following 
sentence, because would he better. "It cannot be otherwise, in re* 
gard that (because) the French prosody differs from that of every 
other language." 

The following very common expressions appear to be rather ex- 
ceptionable : *A good many, a great m'dny, a good deal.' We nev^ 
er hear the expressions, 'A bad many, a little many,] which are, 
according to analogy, equally correct. Why then join a pood to 
mam/, as if it added something distinctive to its meaning? It is 
readily admitted that those who in point of taste, prefer using these 
redundant words, can find authority. 

Firstly is often improperly used instead otfirst. 'See page/orfy, 
instead of fortieth.* *He will perform it rightfully, for, He will 
perform it right, or, in a right manner.' 'Read the two first and 
three last paragraphs.' These are employed as though there could 
be more than one first and one last. They should be the first two. 
and the last three. *Bring me them there books,' is a common ex- 
pression with many people. The pronoun them, and the adverb 
there are improperly joined to a noun; the sentence should be,, 
'bring me those books,' .... 

Absurdities, &c. The expressions, <1 can learnhim many things,' 
'We don't think it is so,' are absurd and inconsistent. The first 
should be, 'I can teachhim many things.' T° k4 rn is to acquire or 
receive information ; to teach means to communicate information to 
others. The second example should be, 'We do think, that it is not 

'"Art thou going to meeting to-raorrow?" "I am free that the 
proposition should be adopted." Corrected— Dost thou expect 05. 
intend to go to meeting to-morrow? I am willing that the proposi- 
tion should be adopted, or, I unite with the adoption of that pro- 
position. . , . 

When nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distingmsnable m 
sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, some au- 
thors have thought it allowable to put the verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns in the singular number; as, "Sand, and salt, and a mass of 
iron, is easier to bear than a man without understanding." But 
such a construction is evidently contrary to best authority. The 
verb is should be are. 

What is sometimes exceptionably used ; as, "All fevers except 
what are called nervous, &c. except those which is better. 

The words a and the are often properly omitted : when used they 
should be justly applied according to their true meaning; as, 'Man 
was made for society;" "Gold is corrupting;" "And 1 persecuted 
this way unto death," not unto the death. In some cases it is dif- 
ficult to determine, whether the adjectives these or those, or the pro^ 
nouns they or ihem is preferable ; as, "7>*e \W sqw in tea,rs s)wQ 



154 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

reap in joy ; or, "They that sow, fee." "We do not wish to be ac- 
quainted with them or those who are given to detraction. In sen- 
tences like these, the perspicuity and easy style of language should 
be the criterion. 

Tautology, Tautology is the using of words, which add nothing 
to the sense, and which should be avoided ; such as, cold snow, 
9I0W mope, hot boiling water, good satisfaction, now extant, free 
gratis, wise sages, a. flowing stream, a dull blockhead, &c. 

Ever, Ahvays. Ever refers to one indefinite period of time, 
Alwayi signifies at all times. Therefore as they are not synony- 
mous, they should not be used indiscriminately. 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX, 

Potassium has been discovered by H, Davy, in 1807. 
, All bodies are, in a greater or lesser degree conductors of 
caloric. 

The atmosphere, at the height of fifty mile, is said to he 
bo rare, that it has no sensible effect against the rays of 
light. 

He doubted them to be sincere. 

The seeds of the yellow iris, roasted, is declared by Dr. 
Johnson to make excellent coffee. 

It is said dry bones may be converted to nutriment by 
steam, or by a cheap acid. 

Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. 

Ink spots on linen, when dry may be extracted by rubbing 
of them over with ox alate of potash. 

Fatal accidents happen often from the burning charcoal in 
chambers. 

If a globule of potassium is thrown upon water, an instan- 
taneous explosion, with brilliant flame, are produced. 

Medina contains a magnificent mosque where 300 lamps, 
are kept always burning. 

Either plant only reproduces its own species, and never 
any other. 

Let him to be informed, that yellow ink may be made by a 
solution of gamboge in gum- water. 

The roots of the Dandelion have been at one time applied 
to the skin for a mild blistering effect. 

From the raspberry a fine blue color has, and is, prepared. 

Its gratifying to see science rapidly flourishing. 

It is said that the cabbage and lettuce, was first imported 
from Holland. 

He will divide his estate between his two sons; she will 
divide hers among her three daughters, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE Or ENGLISH C&AMMAR. 155 

Gold which had first induced the Spaniards to settle Porto 
fiico is no longer found. 

He does not know nothing about the splits of the banana, 
which makes a tolerable substitute for paper. 

The same instinct is found among every kind of fish. 
He was informed how that from the pith of the common 
rush, candle-wicks are often made. 

The document was signed on the committee's behalf. 
Eratosthenes was him, who first correctly determined the 
circumference of the earth. 

On whichsoever side he went, the people were pleased. 
The fall of an apple is said to have gave rise to Sir Isaac 
Newton's system of gravitation. 

The severity of the distress of the son of the king affected 
die people. 

He went for to see^ whether the leaves of a clover field fol- 
low the sun or no. 

Sensitive plants lose their power of contracting, if laurel- 
Water, opium, or nux vomica is applied. Camphor so con- 
tracts them, as they will not dilate again. 

Gouldson will not believe but what as good and nutritions 
bread may be made from the parsnip, turnip, beet, &c. as can 
have been from the finest wheaten flour. 

They were refus2d entrance into, and forcibly driven from 
the library of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The library is said to 
contain 700,000 volumes. 

He is like a beast of prey, who is void of compassion. 
We see the beautiful variety of color in the rain-bow, and 
are led to consider the cause of it. 

From whence it follows. Where shall we fly? 
The lungs is the organ of respiration, or that part of the 
body by which breathing is performed. 

At Cheltenham, in 1829 two apple trees were covered with 
blossoms, and at the same time bear a fine crop of fruit. 
Ah! wretched I, how ungrateful! 

He has little more of the great man, besides the title. 
We have no other expectation, but that excellent sugar may 
be made from beets. Sarah's and Belinda's books are exe- 
cuted neat. 

The Prussian priests give a passport to their dying, certi* 
fying that the bearer was a good christian. 

It is said a French miller has, and can grind, straw and 
hay into nutritive flour. 

She was pleased with the Manchester gentleman's, as si* 



J56 Afc EASf AND LUCID GUIDE 

tailed him, plan of making bread from turnips^ carrdts, pars- 
nips, and beets. 

It seems to have been a general rule that the green parts of 
vegetables are ever giving out oxygen gas in light. 

Vegetable medicines has constituted the physic of our an- 
cestors. 

The young rfjots of the dandelion, with thin slices of 
bread and butter is sometimes eat, by the French. 

He has saw a beautiful blue color extracted from the myr* 
tie berries of Switzerland. 

He seen the statement of aft apple^ which is said to be 15 
inches round, and to have weighed 25 ounces. 

An experimenter saysj he can make good beer With pota- 
toes. 

Many people on either side of the Ganges worship it. 

Britain was firstly inhabited by Gauls. 

Sulphur or brimstone, are a hard inflammable mineral, of* 
& yellow color. 

Workmen have often lost their lives by sleeping too near 
burning lime-kilns, from whence carbonic acid gas is extri- 
cated abundant. 

Quick-lime let down in buckets^ and gradually sprinkled 
with water, it will remove all the carbonic acid gas in wells* 

The helix or snail have been used for medicine and food,* 
though they are now denounced as a destructive visitor of 
t>ur gardens-. 

He can be learned many things. Each books were here. 

To have seen him would have afforded me great pleasure. 

I intended* last year, to have visited the Strombolo volca- 
nic mountain, which burns without ceasing. 

If one grain of dry. nitrate of bismuth is previously mixed 
with a grain of phosphorus, and then rubbed together in a 
metallic mortar, a loud detonation may be produced. 

With the North American trees^ the cypress is one of the 
most majestic. 

He expected to have visited last summer the kingdom of 
Nubia, where their houses are built of mud walls. 

Herschels diameter is 35,112 mile. 

The buildings in Batavia look very neat. 

He has a fine piece of cloth. 

Who shall we study with? The fire looks comfortably* 

There are many people live indolent, and are mere nui«> 
feances of society. 

The teacher loves his pupils, because they continue with 
him now three years. 



YO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLSH 'GRAMMAR, 15" 

Every church and sect, have opinions and tenets peculiar 
to themselves. 

The most ignorant and the most savage trihes of men> 
r/hen they have looked round on the earth, could not avoid 
ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and 
felt a propensity to adore their Creator. 

No fish seems more fiercer and more dangerous than a 
shark. 

The most commonesttfbod of the Greenland whale, is a 
small insect called Medusa. 

If the flower of the African marigold continue shut after 
^even in the morning, rain will be expected to fall immedi- 
ately. 

J, Smith states that plants ever turn their stem and leaves 
to the light, not towards the air. 

The daisy folds up commonly its floral leaves as the sun 
-sets. 

Physiology is the science which treat of the powers that 
actuates the component parts of animal living bodies, and of 
the functions them bodies execute. 

Every thing that is neither sound, light, odor, or savor, 
are appreciated by the sense of touching. 

The chiefest bulk of insensible perspifation, and of sweat 
is water. 

In the lime stone country of Virginia, there is many cav- 
erns of very considerable extent. 

Pure carbon is knew only in the diamond. 

Carbonic gas is invisibly and elastic, and is more heavier 
than atmospheric air. 

The calcined mignesia, is the most effectual antidote in 
♦cases of poison, by the mineral acids. 

_Mignesia converts vegetable blues into a green. 

It is owing to the expansion of water in freezing, which of- 
ten cause rocks and trees to split during intense frosts. 

I have saw it stated, that pear-trees planted in the time of 
King William, by gradual paring away the old wood and 
bark, were covered in 1807 with new branches and fine fruit. 

In all our laudable and eager pursuits after scientific and 
•useful knowledge, let us> to bear in mind, that we are account- 
able to the most Supreme Ruler of the World, for every 
^thought, word, and action. ' 

O 



158 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

PROSODY. 

Prosody* in its most extensive sense, comptt* 
ses all the laws of Elocution. And Elocution is 
the art of so employing the Quality, Abruptness* 
Force, Time, and Pitch of the voice, in the ut* 
terance of syllables, as to convey the sense 
and sentiment of discourse in the fullest manner, 
and with the greatest possible gratification to the 
ear. 

Prosody is mostly divided into two parts ; the 
first teaches the true pronunciation of words, and 
comprises Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, 
Pause, and Tone; and the second, the laws 01 
Versification. 

Accent. Accent is a peculiar stress of the voice laid on a 
particular letter or syllable in a word, to distinguish it from 
others; as, in the word pf esa'me, the stress of the voice must 
be on the letter u, ahd on the second syllable sume, which 
take the accent. 

Every word of more syllables than one, has an accented 
syllable. And to long words a secondary accent is some- 
times admitted;. as, " Hes ti mo* ni s al, a ban' don y ing." 

Quantity. Quantity is the extension of the time taken in 
pronouncing syllables^ without changing their standard pro- 
nunciation. 

Some syllables cannot be extended in their time without 
changing their natural sounds or rendering their pronuncia- 
tion affected. "Act, pit, cat, and dip, are of this sort." Some 
are capable of great prolongation, and wjth an increase of 
pleasure to the ear; as, "Hail, all, thee, isle, own, ooze, and 
how." If a syllable cannot be extended in quantity, with- 
out changing the elementary sounds which compose it, or 
rendering its pronunciation affected, it should not be given. 
The exhibition of quantity should be perfectly free from the 
slightest drawl. As quantity, (which embraces a proper ar- 
ticulation,) is one oPthe most important uses of the voice, the 
following remarks, from Austin's ChoronoMIa, are given: 
"In just articulation the words are not to be hurried over^ 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 15& 

nor precipitated syllable over syllable; nor, as it were, melt- 
ed together into a mass of confusion; they should neither be 
improperly abridged nor prolonged, nor swallowed, nor forc- 
ed- they should not be trailed nor drawled, nor let slip out 
carelessly. They should be delivered out from the lips aa 
beautiful coins, newly issued from the mint; deeply and ac- 
curately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the 
proper organs, distinct, in due succession, and in due weight. 

Emphasis. Emphasis is that employment of the voice by 
which some syllables, words, and portions of sentences are 
rendered specially impressive, by means of increased stress, 
peculiar quality of voice, quantity, or change of pitch, or by 
the combination of any two or more of these. 

On the right management of the emphasis depends the 
life of pronunciation, If no emphasis be placed on any 
words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, 
but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be 
placed wrong, we shall wholly pervert and confound the mean- 
ing. Emphasis besides its other offices is a great regu- 
lator of quantity. 

Pauses. Pauses or rests, in speaking or reading, are a to- 
tal cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and in many 
cases, a measurable space of time, 

Tones. Tones consist in the modulations of the voice, or 
in the notes or variations of sound, employed in the expres- 
sions of our sentiments, u # . 

The difference between tone and emphasis is; hmpna&i* 
affects particular words and phrases; and tones affect senten- 
ces, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. 

PUNCTUATION, 

Punctuation is the art of marking the points 
or stops, which, in writing, the sense and an ac- 
curate pronunciation require. 

The points principally used in composition are, the com- 
uta, the semicolon, the colon and the period. The comma 
marks the shortest pause: the semkolon a pause between the 
comma and semicolon; the colon* pause between the semi* 
colon and period ; and the period the longest pause, 
' In giving rules for punctuation, it is readily conceded, 
that the business of punctuation depends much on the judg- 
ment, literary taste, and practical skill of the writer ; and that 



100 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

the following rules admit of some exceptions; yet a tho- 
rough knowledge of them will be found! of essential utility 
The meaning of a sentence may be either entirely altered ow 
completely perverted, by the improper use or omission of 
points, The following examples will illustrate this fact 
Reason is the distinguishing excellence of man and Ian-' 
guage, the means by which its operations are performed 
"Tryon who escaped,has sandy hair, light eyes.with a short 
nose turned up about six feet high, &c.^ Corrected • Rea- 
son is the distinguishing excellence of man, and langua<r e 
the means, &c. "with a short nose turned up ; about six feet 
high, &c." 

It is requisite in order to determine the proper application 
of the rules of punctuation, to know what is meant by an ad- 
junct, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence. ' 

An Adjunct contains no assertion, or does not, detached 
from the sentence in wJiich it Hs used, amount to a proposi- 
tion. The words in italicks are an adjunct. See pages 76 

w£ the definition of a simple, aud a compound sentence 

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb 
in the same manner, or by the same preposition or conjunc- 
tion, the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as 
many simple ones as there are adjuncts; as, The torpedo, 
iound in the rivers of South America, when touched by the 
naked hand, or any conductor, produces a strong electric 
shock. But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb 
in a different manner, the sentence is simple- as, Females 
possessing the requisite qualifications, are allowed in New 
Jersey the right of voting at elections.^The words italicised, 
show where the adjuncts begin, and where they end. 

COMMA, 

Rule 1 The members of a simple sentence should not, 
in general be separated by a comma; as, All living ■ vegeta- 
bles have the power of decomposing water. But when the 
simple sentence is long, or when the nominative is accompa- 
nied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may ad. 
mit a comma immediately before the verb; as, "Tea many 
of the pretended friendships of youth, are mere combina- 
tions in pleasure. 

EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION, 

chlr^ Praise orcens ^eis a, real defect in 

character. The i Y y saves many animals from want and death in 
autumn and spnpg. The effect of light in causing ihe ^tS w 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \Q\ 

of plants is evidenced by the whiteness of those which grow in dark- 
ness. The Russians wear a covering of fur for six months in the 
year. 

Rule 2. An Adjunct of importance coming between the 
different parts of a simple sentence, should be distinguished 
by a comma before and after it; as, The air of Sweden is, in 
many respects, very salubrious. But when the adjunct is 
short and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma; as, He 
undoubtedly possesses many virtues. 

Exercises. Most of the grains necessary for the subsistence of 
roan and beast are cultivated in Russia. The regular ebbings and 
flowirigs of the.sea twice every day are called Tides. No assumed 
behavior can always hide the character. The best men often ex- 
perience disappointments. He too has his trials. It is said that 
the whale although the -largest and strongest of all known animals 
is the smallest eater . 

Rule 3. The nominative ease absolute, the infinitive 
mood, the nominative case independent, and nouns in ap- 
position with their accompanied adjuncts, a participle with 
words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase 
which may, be resolved into a simple sentence, should be sep- 
arated by commas ; as, "His father dying, he succeeded to 
the estate ;?* To be learned and good^is honorable; Dear 
friends, I wish you happiness; "The king, approving the 
plan, put it in execution." 

But if the two noun&in apposition are unaccompanied by 
adjuncts, or if they only form a proper name, they must not 
be separated ; as, Paul the apostle preached the gospel free- . 

iy- 

Exercises. Hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfor- 
tune. Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune.. 
To confess the truth I was in* fault. Confucius the great Chinese . 
philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The path of pie- 
ty and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will assured- 
ly lead to happiness. By the magnetic needle mariners are ena- 
bled to conduct their vessels in any given direction. The reindeer 
i§ the most remarkable animal of Lapland. 

Rule 4. Where the verb of a simple member 
is understood, a comma may sometimes be inserted; 
as, "From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; It is 
sometimes better to omit the comma; as, "No power is so 
great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from 
the attacks of malice and envy. 

Exercises. From Boston he proceeded to New York; from New 
York to Philadelphia. Asa companion he was severe and; satiri- 
cal; as a friend captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth , 
o2 



162 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

no blossoms in summer there will be no beauty and in autumn no 
fruit. 

Rule 5. The simple members of a compound sentence, 
and three or more words of t lie same part of speech, connect- 
ed by conjunctions, expressed or understood, should be sep- 
arated by commas; as, "Every plant, every herb, and every 
tree,* are all day long effusing oxygen, attracting electricity, 
and absorbing light." David was a brave, wise, and pious 
man. Two or more words of the same part of speech occur- 
ring in the same construction, with ; their conjunctions under- 
stood, must be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, 
wonderfully mads." 

Exercises. Silicia Alumina Zirconia glucina yttria barytes 
sfrontiteslime and magnesia are the nine earths at present known. 
Wheat and straw may be melted into a Colorless glass with the blow-, 
pipe without any addition. Self conceit presumption and obstina- 
cy blast the prospect of many a youth . Conscious guilt renders 
one mean-'spiiited timorous and base. The great business of life 
is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking hum- 
bly with our Creator. Deliberate slowly execute prompth r . The 
man of honor will be trusted relied upon and esteemed. Habits of 
reading writing and thinking are the indispensable qualifications 
of a good student. The Lapland reindeer feed on grass leaves and 
moss. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understand- 
ing deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man from 
his rank in creation. 

Rule 6. When the members of comparative sentences 
are short, they should not be separated by commas; as, 
"Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason." But when 
a pronoun immediately follows a noun, used in a general 
sense, a comma should mostly be placed before the pro- 
noun; as, Man, who is prone by nature to sin, is of few days 
and full of trouble. The members of long sentences, which 
are connected by adjectives, mostly admit a comma before 
the adjective ; as, "There is no charm in the female sex, which 
can supply the place of virtue." 

Rule 7. Two words of the same kind, immediately con- 
nected by a conjunction, must not be separated: as, "The 
study of natural history, expands and elevates the mind. 
When the words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should 
be separated; as, "Whether we eat or drink, labour or sleep, 
we should be temperate." 

*In the proper pronunciation of this sentence, a considerable 
pause before the verb is required, for which reason the comma is 
properly inserted; but in theexample, "David was a brave, wise, 
-and pious man," no pause in the pronunciation, immediately be- 
fore man, is requisite; therefore the comma should not be inserted- 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, JOB, 

Rule 8. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the 
infinitive mood, which is in apposition with the nominative 
cas3, the verb may generally be separated from the infinitive* 
by a comma; as, "The greatest misery is, to be condemned 
by our own hearts. 1 " 

The verb to be sometimes admits a comma on each side of 
it; as, "The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be con- 
demned by our own hearts." 

Exercises. The great business of this life is to prepare for eter- 
nity. The best method to obtain the knowledge of a science is to 
study diligently reason methodically, and be not too easily dis- 
couraged. 

Rule 9. A remarkable expression, or short observation, 
should generally be separated by a comma; as, Turner says, 
What acorn food is yet' palatable to some people." "It hurts 
a man's pride to say, / do not know." 

Exercises. It is said the bread- fruit- tree in Tahiti, produces 
three and sometimes four crops in a year. Heshbon wheat it is, 
said has ears twice as large as the common kind with 84 grains in 
one ear. 

Rule 10. Several verbs in the infinitive mood, and having 
a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, To 
promote peace, to inculcate piety, to be obedient to parents, 
and to comfort the afflicted, are noble traits in the character 
of any one. 

Exercises. To be humble and modest in opinion to be vigilant 
and attentive in conduct to distrust fair appearances and to re-, 
strain rash desires are instructions which the darkness of our pres^ 
ent state should strongly inculcate. 

Rule 11. When words are placed in opposition to each 
other, or with some marked variety, they should be distin- 
guished by commas; as, "Tire French, and not the Calmucs, 
are considered handsome." Sometimes when the word with 
which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to 
omit the comma; as, Many estates were in alliance with, and 
under the protection of Rome. 

Exercises. The goods of this world were given to man for his oc- 
casional refreshment not for his chief felicity. The true christian 
is humble and philanthropic not ostentatious and vain. 

Rule 12. The words, so, as, thus, nay, again, hence, 
first, secondly , formerly, now, once more, lastly, on the con- 
trary, in the next place, therefore, in short, at present, and 
all ether words and phrases of the same kind,' should gene- 
rally be separated from the context of the sentence, by a com- 
ma; as, "Remember thy best and first friend." 



164 AK EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Exercises. At present we know of no vegetable remains of ear* 
lier existence than those which belong to the coal formation. 
Thus the flowers which open in Senegal at six will not unfold iii 
France or England till eight or nine. 

Note. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member 
from the member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase may 
be separated at each extremity ; as, "They set out early, and, be- 
fore the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This 
rule, unless the sentence is a very long one, is not generally observ- 
ed by our, best' writers. 

SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is properly employed in a compound sen- 
tence, to separate the members which are not so closely con- 
nected as those separated by commas, nor so independent as. 
those distinguished by colons. 

Rule 1 . When a longer pause than -a comma is requir- 
ed, and when the sense is incomplete without the concluding 
member, of sentence, and sometimes when the sense would" 
be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon shoukt. 
be used ; as, "Straws swim , upon , the surface; but pearls lie 
at the bottom." 

Exercises. The best fodder grasses of Europe do not rise more , 
than three or four feet from the ground but the Panicum Specta- 
cle of Brazd grows six or seven feet high while the other equally 
gigantic species constitute the field-crops on the banks of the Ama- 
zons. "Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her opera- 
tions that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve that knowledge 
will always be progressive and that-all future generations will- 
continue to make discoveries of which we have not the least idea.' 9 • 

Rule 2. The Semicolon may be used when an example 
to illustrate a rule, a quotation, or a speech isintrodueed; as r 
"The verb must agree with its nominative in number and 
person." He was often heard to say ; "I have done with the 
world, I am willing to leave it/' A philologist makes this 
remark; "That many respectable punctuists employ the co- 
lon, instead of the semicolon, in examples like the foregoing."- 

€OLOIV. t 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more, 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by *, 
semicolon; but not so independent as separate distinct 
sentences. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

Rule 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in 
itsejf, but followed by a supplemental remark, or further ik 
lustration of the subject,, the colon is commonly employed; 
as, 'The three great enemies to tranquility,, are vice, super* 
stition, and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the 
mind with bad passions; superstition, which fills it with im- 
aginary terrors; idleness,, which load^ it with tediousness and 
disgust.' "Great works are performed* not by strength, but 
by perseverance:, yonder palace was raised by single stones? 
yet you see its height and spaciousness," 

Exercises. There is no mortal truly wise and restless at once 
wisdom is th.3 repose of mind?. Happy would the poor man think 
himself if he could enter on all the treasures of the rich and happy 
for a short time he mi^htbe but before he had lon^ contemplated 
and admired his state his possessions would seem to lessen and his 
cares would-grow. The best ground-work for the purpose of men- 
tal science is an accurate judgment a disseminating penetrating in- 
tellect and a habit of correct and cautious reasoning therefore" the 
best preparatory culture of the mind is the study of the various 
branches of the Mathematics and of natural philosophy. 

Rule 2. When several semicolons have preceded, and 
when a greater pause is necessary to mark the connecting or 
concluding sentiment, the colon is properly applied; as, "A 
Divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an Almighty 
governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; in- 
forming us of perpetual restjjrepared hereafter for the right- 
eous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked;, 
these are considerations which overawe the world, which sup- 
port integrity, and check guilt*" 

PERIOD, 

A sentence making in itself complete sense, requires a 
period after it; as, "Fear God." "Honor your parents." A 
period is sometimes used between two sentences, which are 
connected by conjunctions; as, "If we look round us we 
shall perceive that the whole universe is full of active pow- 
ers. And action is indeed the genius of nature," 

The period should be employed after every abbreviated 
word; as, U.S. M.S. P. S, N. 6. G. B. Mr, M, D. D. D, 
Va. Pa, 

INTERROGATION, 

The point of interrogation is used at the end of an interrog- 
ative sentence; as, "Shall we always be friends?" An in- 
terrogative point should not be employed, in eases where it is 
only said a question has been asked, and where the words 



166 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

are not used as a question; as, He asked me, "What £g 
the most important study" » 

The literal use of the interrogative point is to ask a ques-. 
lion; but it may be employed in the prosecution of close 
and earnest reasoning, When men are prompted by passion, 
whatever they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, 
they naturally put in the form of a question; expressing 
thereby the firmest confidence of the truth of their own opin^ 
jons, and appealing to their hearers for the impossibility of 
the contrary, 

EXCLAMAflQJV. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sud* 
den emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and also to invocations 
or addresses; as, "My friend! this conduct amazes me!'* 
"Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great ! "Blesg 
the Lord Omy soul! and forget not all his benefits." 

Exclamations being natural signs of a moved and agitated 
mind, always when properly employed make us sympathize 
with those who use them, and enter into their feelings. No* 
thing, however, has a worse effect, than frequent and unsea- 
sonable use of exclamations, They render composition fri- 
gid to excess, Wherj an author is continually calling upon 
us to enter into transports, which he has said nothing to in^ 
gpire, he excites our disgust and indignation. 

DASH, 

The dash, though often used improperly by hasty and in- 
coherent writers, rnay be introduced with propriety where 
the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a significant pause 
is required; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sen- 
timent ;— as, *If thou art he, so much respected once— but 
oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !' 'If acting conformably to 
the will of our Creator,-— *if promoting the welfare of man- 
kind around us,-r^-if securing our own happiness,' — are ob- 
jects of the highest moment ;— 4hen we are called upon to 
cultivate and extend the great interests of .religion and vir- 
tue.'— A dash, following a stop,denotes that the pause is to, 
be greater, than if the stop were alone; and, when used by 
itself, requires a pause of such a length, as the sense alone 
pan determine. 

'Whatever is, is right,*— This world, 'tis true, 
^Was rnade fqr Ceesar-rrJbut for Titus too, 1 



*tO A KNOWLEDGE OF EN&LlStf GRAMMAR. 107' 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis includes a clause of sentence, Containing 
Some necessary or useful remark, which may be omitted 
without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "Know 
ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) 
that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?'* 

Care in the use of parenthetical characters is necessary. 
If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with 
the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use parentheses. — 
The following example is an improper use of the parenthesis. 
"Every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in vain) is 
most probably inhabited-.** And as the parenthesis does 
not supply the place of points, it should be accompanied with 
jevery point which the sense requires, and be terminated with 
the same kind of points which the member has, that precedes 
it; as, "Respiration (I suppose every body knows) consists 
in drawing a certain quantity of air into the lungs, and throw- 
ing it out again alternately." 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

"Virtue alone is happiness below.'* 

Parenthetical characters, containing interrogations or ex- 
clamations, form an exception to the foregoing rule; as, True 
heart-felt religion and wisdom, (and who will say, the man 
possessing them is not happy?) are the most valuable posses- 
sions man can enjoy* 

APOSTROPHE. 

An Apostrophe is used to shorten a word, and to mark 
what is called the possessive case of nouns; as, e^en for even; 
desired for desired; MalvinaPs neat drawing. 

QUOTATION* 

t 

The Quotation is used by writers, to include the words 
or sentiments of an author in his own language; as, "True 
criticism is the application of taste and of good sense to the 
several fine arts." A quotation contained within an other 
should be marked by single commas; as, "The largest and 
fullest performance, perhaps, of descriptive poetry, is, 
'Thompson's Seasons;' a work which possesses uncommon 
• taerit." 



168 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

DIRECTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN USING CAPITAL LETTERS. 

1. Begin the first word of every sentence with a capital. 

2. Begin with a capital after a note of interrogation or 
exclamation, if the parts of the sentence are totally inde- 
pendent. 

3. The appellations of the Deity ; as* God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, placss, cities, mountains, 
rivers, lakes, ships, &c, and the titles of books; as, Louisa, 
Pennsylvania, Baltimore, Allegheny, Oneida, the Franklin, 
Webster's Dictionary* 

5. Adjectives derived from proper names, the first word 
of every line in poetry, the pronoun I and the interjection 
-O; as, Italian, Grecian, I walk; Bless the Lord, O my soul! 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, 
and the first word of an example given to illustrate a rule; 
as, "Temptation proves our virtue." 

When words are remarkably emphatic, or the principal sub- 
ject of the composition, they may also begin with a capital. 

VERSIFICATION. 

English versification or poetry is a species of composition, 
in which, a particular number and variety of accented and 
unaccented syllables are harmoniously arranged, according to 
particular laws. 

Rhyrncis that kind of poetry in which the sound of the 
last syllable in one line, corresponds with that of another; as, 

. "If solid happiness we prize, 
Within our breast this jewel ]ies. , ' 

Blank verse, like other poetry, is expressed in regular num- 
bers or measure, but does not rhyme. 

A certain number of accented and unaccented syllables 
connected, forms what is called poetical feet. They are 
^called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it 
were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 
Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet con- 
tained in a line. All poetical feet consist either of two, or 
of three syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of 
two syllables, and four of three j as, 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAU. 169 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

A Trochee - v A Dactyl — v/. ^ 

An Iambus u — An Amphibrach ^ - v 

A Spondee An Anapaest ^ ^ - 

A Pyrrhick ^ w A Tribrach v ^ y, 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last un- 
accented-; .as, Hateful, pettish. 

Bliss In vain from earth is sought. 
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented; as Delay, behold. 

May peace 2t l2st be my lot. 
A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, 
A high tree, the pale moon. 

Old time brings man t<5 his long home. 

A Pyrrhick has both the words or syllables* unaccented; 
as, & small stream, 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two 
unaccented; as, conqueror, horrible. 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, 
and the middle one accented; as, Delightful, surprising. 

# An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and 
the last accented ; as, mcSmparable. 

A Tribrachha.s all its syllables unaccented; as, innumer- 
able. 

RHETORIC- 

Rhetoric treats of the proper choice of words, of the hap- 
piest method of constructing sentences, and of their most ad- 
vantageous arrangement in a sentence, so as to convey the 
sense and sentiment of discourse in the fullest manner, and 
with the greatest possible gratification to the ear. 

It may be said, that a good Rhetorician, is one on whom 
good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination, happily 
meet. 

STYLE. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which a man expresses 
his thoughts by words. It is the picture of the ideas in his 
snindj and of the order in which they are produced* 
P 



170 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

The qualities of a good style come under two general 
heads, Perspicuity and Ornament, 

Perspicuity is the fundamental quality of a good style.>— 
Without this, the brightest ornaments only glimmer through 
the dark, and perplex, instead of pleasing the reader. Per- 
spicuity requires attention first to words and phrases, and 
secondly to the construction of sentences. When consid- 
ered with respect to words and phrases, it requires these 
three qualities, purity, propriety , and precision. 

Purity of language is the use of such words and construc- 
tions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposi- 
tion to words and phrases which are imported from other lan- 
guages, or which are obsolete or newly coined, or employed 
without proper authority. 

Propriety is the proper choice of such words as convey 
distinctly the ideas intended to be expressed by them. It 
implies their correct application, in opposition to vulgar or 
low expressions, and to words and phrases less significant of 
the ideas intended to be conveyed. 

Precision from pr acid ere, to cut off, signifies retrenching 
all superfluities, and so pruning the expression, as to exhibit 
neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intend- 
ed to be conveyed. The great source of a loose style, and 
the opposite of precision, is the injudicious use of words 
called synonymous. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

•We cannot be too strict in our attention to the proper con- 
struction of sentences. For, whatever be the subject, if the 
sentences be constructed in a clumsy, perplexed, or feeble 
manner, the composition cannot be read with pleasure, nor 
even with profit. 

The qualities of a perfect sentence, are Unity, Clearness^ 
Strength, and Harmony. 

Unity is that arrangement of a sentence, which so closely 
unites its parts, that they make on the mind, the impression, 
not of many objects, but of only one. To preserve this unity 
the following rules are useful: 

1. In the course of the sentence the subject should be 
changed as little as possible. 

There is generally in every sentence, some person or thing, which 
is the leading or governing word. This should be continued so ; 
if possible, from the beginning to the end of it. Should a man ex- 
press himself in this manner: "After they came to anchor they 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \^i 

put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received 
me with the greatest kindness ." Though the objects in this sen- 
tence are sufficiently connected, yet, by changing so often the sub- 
ject and person, we, they, I, and who, they appear so disunited, that 
the mind is led to wander for the sense and connexion. The sen- 
tence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus : "H a v- 
ing come to anehor /was put on shore, .where 7 was saluted by all 
my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." 

2. Never crowd into one sentence, ideas which have so 
little connexion, that they might with propriety, he divided ia- 
to two or more sentences. 

3. Avoid unnecessary parentheses. 

4. Bring the sentence to a fall and perfect close. When 
arrived at what is expected to be the conclusion, when come 
to the word on which the mind is naturally led to rest, do not 
unexpectedly add some circumstance, which ought to be ei- 
ther omitted, or disposed of elsewhere. 

Clearness. Clearness is the arrangement of sentences, 
so that the words or members most nearly related, are placed 
as near to each other as possible, that their mutual relation 
may clearly appear. If this rule is not observed, ambiguity 
is often the consequence. It should be observed, 

1. In the position of adverbs: ''Theism,'' says lord Shaftsbury,, 
"can only be opposed to polytheism or atheism." Is theism capa- 
ble of nothing else, except being opposed to polytheism or atheism? 
This is what the words literally mean through the improper collo- 
cation of only. He ought to have said, "Theism can be opposed 
only to polytheism or atheism." 

2. In the position of phrases and members. "Are these designs 
which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any 
situation, ought to be ashamed, or afraid to avow? Here we are 
in doubt whether the phrases, "in any circumstances, in any situa- 
tion," be connected with "a man born in Britain;" or with "what 
man's avowing his designs." It is generally supposed to mean this ; 
"Are these designs, which any man who is born a Briton, ought to 
be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstances, in any situation, to 
avow 1 ? 

3. In the position of the pronoun who, and the connecting adjec- 
tive which. Refer to Note 69k 

Strength. By Strength is meant such a disposition of 
the words and members as exhibits the sense to the best ad- 
vantage; as renders the impression full and complete; 
and gives every word and every member its xlue weight and 
force. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sen- 
tence is: 

1 . Take from it all redundant words and phrases. Words which 
are easily supplied in the mind are better omitted in the expres- 
sion. We must be careful not to prune so closely, as to give a 



172 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE' 

hardness and dryness to our style. Some lea\es should be left t& 
shelter and adorn the fruit. * 

2. Pay particular attention to the placing of connectives and par- 
ticks. What is termed splitting of particles, or separating a pre- 
position from the noun which it governs should be ayoided. The 
strength of a sentence is also much weakened by the unnecessary 
multiplication of that and . which in familiar style. The useless 
repetition of the connecting particle and always enfeebles style. 
By omitting it we often make a closer connexion, a quicker suc- 
cession of objects, than when it is inserted between them. When,, 
however, we wish to make objects appear as distinct as possible, 
and may be multiplied with peculiar advantage. Thus lord Bo- 
lingbroke says with propriety ; "Such a man might fall a victim to 
power; but truth, and reason, and liberty would fall with him . 

3. Dispose of the principal words in that part of the sentence where 
they will make the most striking impression. In general the impor- 
tant words are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes, 
however, when we wish to give much weight to our sentence, it is 
useful to suspend the meaning a little, and then to bring it out ful- 
ly at the close. 

4. So arrange the members of a sentence that they will rise one 
above another in their importance. A weaker assertion should not 
follow a stronger one, and in a sentence consisting of two members^ 
the longer should generally be the concluding one. 

5. The sentence should not be concluded with an adverb, a preposi~ 
tion, or an insignificant WGrd, unless it be emphatical. 

6. Where two things are compared with each other, a resemblance 
in the language and construction ought to be observed. 

Haemony. The harmony of a sentence depends vpon 
the choice of words, the proper distribution of the members 
of it, and the close or cadence of the whole. Whatever is ea- 
sy to the organs of speech, is always grateful to the ear.— 
The words are most pleasing to the ear, which are composed 
of smooth and liquid sounds, without too many harsh conso- 
nants, or too many open vowels in succession. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

Figures of speech generally imply some departure from 
simplicity of expression. The proper use of figures, renders 
the impression more strong and vivid, than if addressed in plain* 
language. Though figures generally imply a deviation 
from the most simple forms of speech, yet we are not to infer 
that they are any thing uncommon or unnatural. On many 
occasions, they a-re both the most common and most natural 
method of uttering our sentiments. It would be difficult to 
compose any discourse without using them; and for this rea- 
son some knowledge of them seems indispensable to scho- 
lars, who are learning to form their sentences with perspicui- 
ty, accuracy, and force. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 173? 

•When we sav ; "It is impossible, by any search, we can make, to 
explore the Divine Nature fully," we make a fptePT"^- 
but when we say, "Canst thou, by searching find out the Lord . 
ft is high as heaven, what canst thou do? Deeper than hell, 
what canst thou know?" This introduces a figure mto style, the 
proposition being not only expressed, but with it admiration and 
astonishment. 

The figures of speech are generally divided into two class- 
es, Figures of Wobds and Figures of Thought. 

Figures of Words are called Tropes, which consist in the 
use of words different from the original meaning; so that by 
altering the words, we destroy the figures. 

The principal figures are, the Metaphor, Allegory, biroi- 
le or Comparison, Metonymy, Synecdoche or Comprehen- 
sion, Personification or Prosopopoeia, Apostrophe^ Antithe- 
sis, Hyperbole or exaggeration, vision, Climax or Gradation. 

1. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which 
one object bears to another; or it is a comparison expressed 
without the signs of comparison. 

When we say of a minister, "That he upholds the State like a 
pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice " we dearly 
make a comparison ; but when we say, "That he is the -.pitta, -ot\ the 
State," the word pillar is used metaphorically. For, the compari- 
son in the latter construction, is made in the mind, without anj ot 
the signs or words which denote comparison . ,_«.,!, 

All writing is more or less metaphonc. The following are tak- 
en from the Holy Scriptures, in which metaphors are very copious 
and diversified . "Thou art my rock and my fortress. Thj word is 
a lamv to mv feet, and a light to my path." 

In the use J of Metaphors: 1. They should be suited to the na- 
ture of the subject, neither too numerous, nor too gay, nor elec- 
ted 2 A metaphor should be founded on a resemblance, which ,, 
clear and striking, not far-fetched, or difficult to be discovered 3. 
Never jumble raetaphoric and plain language together so that 
nart of it must be understood metaphorically, and part literally, 
Ihth alwav confutes 4. Do not make two different metaphor. 
ll o fSmetbject. 5. Do not crowd them together on the 
rame object. 6. If pursued too far they run into an Allegorj . 

2 An Allegoky is a continuation of one or more Meta- 
phors, so continued as frequently to form a kind of parable. 

The following taken from Thompson is a beautiful Allegory, in 
which the ages'of life are compared with the different seasons of 

the year. 

Behold fond man! 
See here thy pictured life ; pass some few p ars \ 
Thy flowering spring:, thy summer's ardent strength 
Thy sober autumn, fading into age; 
And pale concluding winter comes at last, 
And shuts the scene. 
r2 



174 AS EASY AND LUCID GLIDE 

tJJlt Same rules « iven for the P r °Per use of metaphors, will apply 
to allegories, on account of their affinity. PP y 

3. Simile or Comparison is a figure used to compare 
gects whether real or imaginary ; and it is expressTfn 
figures may J 7 denominatedone ^ the most useful 

*alem, so the Lord is round about his people.' 

A poet compares the race of man to the leaves of trees, thus ; 
"Like leaves of trees the race of man is found. 
Now green m youth, now withering on the ground • 
Another race the following spring fupplies* ' 

I hey fall successive, and successive rise- 
bo generations in their course decay ; 
bo flourish these, when those are past away."' 
In the use of Similes or Comparisons; 1. fhev must not hi* 

JfXiKSS S th ar t0 ° near ^ '*** * Sw 
m ine object with which they are compared. 2. They must not 

rtZ ° n thos \ whi ? h are l °° faint and distant. TheT«traia 

St 3 Cy T he CO oT c t e ? dthem ,'-? d thr ° W -o^taponKb- 
jeci. ,5. the object from which a comparison is drawn «hn»i,? 

■sr nhom ° bject ' nor ° neof wfich ft^^sss? 

« 4 .Metonymy is a figure by which the cause is put for 
J)e effect- or the effect for the cause ; the container for the 
thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified. 

„JI he " V Say : He reads Homer i tne c a"se is used for the effect - 

7eT!tf m Tf W Z kS - " Gray hairS Sh0uld be respected;" here 
the effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs » H „ tt V 
winch produces gray hairs. "The kettle b^oilf," In tl ,Vxn esln 
he container is used for the thing contained. "To Vs X 
sceptre" u an expression often used in entering onrvaalii 
ty : the sign being put for the thing signified. ° 7 author,- 

5. Synecdoche or Comprehension. When the whole 
M put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a spe- 
cies, or a spec.es for a genus; in general when any thino less 
or any tmng more, is put for the precise object meant, the fig! 
ure is calied a Synecdoche. 6 

put for the subject; as, " M) for £, ^^tT^S 

6. Personification is a figure by which we attribute life 

ai " Tf J t C 't Wh f ' We Say ' " the g roDnd **"*«£• 
I' T, dlSeaSe ,^ ^§ deceitful -the desert shall bios- 
som as the rose;" such expressions show the aptness of the 
mod, in attnouting life and aetion to inanimate things 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 

Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
Tell if you saw, how came I thus, how here? 

Milton. 

7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person either 
absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. By 
this figure inanimate objects are personified; as, O thou 
sword of the Lord! how long will it be, ere thou be quiet? 
Put thyself into thy scabbard, rest, and be still. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the ob- 
ject addressed with affected ornaments. Another error is to extend 
this figure to too great length. 

8. Antithesis is the contrast or opposition of two ob- 
jects in a sentence. 

The following examples yery fully illustrate this figure. 

T/io' deep, yet clear; tho> gentle, yet not dull, strong, without 
rage; without overflowing, full, 

9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration, in order to give the 
highest idea of an object, magnifies it beyond its natural 
bounds; as, Her hands due fairer than snow, and hair blacker 
than a raven. 

In all languages, hyperbolical expressions frequently occur ; even 
in common conversation,the following extravagant hyperboles oc- 
cfir. "Swift as the wind ; as white as snow." If a present object 
be remarkably good or great, the imagination has always a ten- 
dency to add some exaggerating epithet, and to make it the great- 
est or best we ever saw. According to the liveliness of the imagi- 
nations of people, they will more or less indulge in hyperbolical 
expressions. The most common errors in the use of Hyperboles > 
arise either from over-straining them, or introducing them on un- 
suitable occasions. 

10. Vision is a representation of distant or unseen things, 
as though they were actually present. 

Pope gives us a striking example of this figure in his elegy to the 
memory of an unfortunate young lady. 

What beck'ning ghost along the moonlight shade, 
Invites my steps, and points to ydnder glade? 
5 Tis she — but why that bleeding bosom gor'd, 
Why dimly gleams the visionary sword? 

This figure should never be employed, unless the composition is 
highly impassioned. 

11. 12. The Interrogation and Exclamation have 
been explained on pages 165 and 6. Please refer to them. 

13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary 
to our thoughts; not with a view to deceive, but to add force 
to our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by. 
saying, "You have taken great care indeed,.'" 



fjft AS EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal tto> 
*rove the truth of their deity, "Mocked them and said, Cry aloud*, 
for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a 
journey, or peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked." 

Climax or Gradation is a figure by which we can rise* 
from one circumstance to another, till our idea is raised t<y 
the highest. 

Young gives a beautiful example of this. 

Sweet harmonist; and beautiful as sweet; 
And young as beautiful ; and soft as young; 
And gay as soft; and innocent as gay. 

I here take the liberty of suggesting to those teachers, who 
are desirous of making not only theoretical, but practical 
grammarians, the propriety of requiring their pupils frequent- 
ly to compose a few lines upon any moral or scientific subject. 
The scholar's knowledge of the proper structure of sentences^ 
ef the use of capital letters, of the figures of speech, and ot 
perspicuity, will be more effectually advanced in this way, 
than in any other. 



CORRUPTIONS, 

IMPROPRIETIES, AND PROVINCIALISMS. 

The improper use otimll for shall is very general in the- 
middle and western states. It is believed to be a corruption 

of the Irish. 

EXAMPLES. 

«I believe we will [shall] all go to the bottom" says the 
Pennsylvanian sailor in- a storm. "I believe I will [shall] 
die" says the despairing patient. "Where will [shall] Heave 
my load" says the Irish porter. Much might be written on 
the abuse of this poor unfortunate word; but I shall not at 
present attempt it, hoping some one more competent may 
aive it that investigation which it justly merits. 

Salad is used for lettuce by a large portion of the people 
in the Middle states. It is a deep-seated error, and not eon- 
fined to the illiterate part of community. lis true meaning 
m ay be seen in almost any English Dictionary. 

In New England the terms pretty and ugly are applied to 
the disposition of persons, instead of, to their external op- 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 177 

pearance. In these states one will often hear, "I guess it 
rains," when the speaker knows this to be a fact, therefore* 
guessing is rather an inappropriate expression. 



Improper, 
He done it. 
I approbate it. 
Give me a drink of water. 
A preventative. 
An agriculturalist. 
Unbeknown to me. 
A skift. 
It fazed him. 
A pair of stairs. 
A span of horses. 
From the South or the 
North. 

Synod met. 

Presbytery met. 

The roads are very bad. 



Correct. 
He did it. 
I approve it. 

Give me a draught of water. 
A preventive. 
An agriculturist. 
Unknown to me. 
A skiff. 

It hurt or affrighted him. 
A set or fight of stairs. 
A pair of horses. 
Name the State. 



Said farm is for sale. 
Without you go, &c. 
He learns him. 
I expect he was there. 

Which do you say? 
He draughted a deed. 
He set up an Apothecary. 
I restored it back again. 
He hasreturned back again. 
They were conversing to- 
gether. 

The patfent is very bad. 

N. England or N. York. 

Are your horses tackled. 
Do you bait your horses at 
noon. 

Did you come in the to-bot. 

Taint no better than hizzen. 

You haddent ought to do it. 

Hese ben to hum this two 
weeks. 



The Synod met. 

The Presbytery met. 

The roads are very difficult 
to pass. 

The said farm is for sale. 

Unless you go, 6lc. 

He teaches him. 

I think or believe ho was 
there. 

What do you say? 

He drew a deed. 

A drug store or shop. 

I restored it. 

He has returned. 

They were conversing. 

The patient is very ill or 
rick. 

Corrected. 

Are your horses harnessed, 

Do you feed your horses at 
noon. 

Did you come in the totc~ 
boat. 

It is no better than his. 

You ought not to do it. 

He has been at home these 
two T^eeks., 



178 



AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 



When ju get hum from Haf- 
ford? 

Where shell I dump my 
cart? Yonder. 

Whats the heft of your load ? 

He'll be here, derights, and 
bring yourn and theirn. 

I be goin. He lives to hum. 



When did you return front 
Hartford? 

Where shall I unload my 
cart? Yonder, 

What is the weight of your 
load? 

He will be here, directly r 
and bring yours and theirs. 
I am going. He lives at 
home. 

He touch'd the stun which I He touched the stone which 
shew him, and di guess it made I showed him, and it made him 
him sithe,for 'twas cissing hot. sigh, for it was hissing hot. 

Go and cut a staddle to make Go and cut a sapling to make 
a lever on. a lever of 



Va. Md. Ky. or Miss. 

Whar you gwine ? 

I hoped him to get it. 

Hese in cohoot with us. 

Tote the water home. 

Is that your plunder? 

I think he mought do better. 

He marbled quickly. 

He wont go. 

Have you fotch my hat? 

He waunt there. 

Carry the horse to water. 

Did you git shet of your pork 

He has run against a snag. 

Bar with me. 

I've made a fine crop this 
year. 

He will soon come of that 
habit. 

Pennsylvania. 

The weat looks fine. 
I never took notice to it. 
Give me them there books. 
He lives furnentz us. 
Dont scrouge me. 



Corrected. 
Where are y ongoing. 
I helped him to get if. 
He is in partnership with us* 
Carry the water home. 
Is that your baggage? 
I think he might do better. 
He moved off quickly. 
He will not go. 
Have yo\\feiched 7 ox brought 
my hat? 

He was not there. 
Lead the horse to water 5 or 
water the horse. 
? Did you get rid, or dispose 
of your pork ? 
He has got into difficulty. 
Bear with me. 
I have raised a fine crop this 
year. 

He will soon overcome that 
habit. 

Corrected. 

The wheat looks fine. 
I never noticed it. 
Give me those books. 
He lives opposite to us* 
Do not crowd me* 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17J 

Bring me a cheer. Bring me a chair. 

I be to be there . I must be there ; or shall be 

there. 

It is a long mile to town. It is ^little more than a mile 

to town. 

He was wunst a man of He was once a man of great 

great strenth. strength. 

He ort to go; so he ort. He ought to go, really. 

He looks like a spook, He looks like a ghost. 

Nan? I knowM what he What? 1 knew his meaning, 

meant, but I never let on. but I kept that to myself. 

I disremember it. I do not remember it. 

Leave me be for Ime afear'd. Let me be, for I am afraid, 

He is mighty weak. He is very weak. 

He is a very smart man. He is a very intelligent man. 

He is an ornary feller. He is an ordinary man. 

Have you saw him? Have you seen him? 

I done my lesson. I have done my lesson. 

He is a man of wanity. He is a man of vanity. 

He cant skeer me into it. He cannot scare me to it. 

We will go a little piece, We will go part of the way, 

and stay a bit. and stay a short time. 
Irish. Corrected. 

Where did you loss it? Where did you lose it. 

I am going till Wheeling the I expect to go to Wheeling 
day. to-day. 

Can we get a wee bit of corn Can we get a small quanta 

smacked the day ? ty of corn ground to-day ? 



KEY. 

Corrections of the False Syntax, arranged under the 

Rules and Notes. 

The words italicised are the ones corrected. 

Rule 1. The trees are, &c. Vast quantities are washed. 
The plains are — the mountains are covered — while their bow- 
els are flaming. Orange trees are — and bear, &c. Marria- 
ges depend. The sincere persons are esteemed. Thou may- 
est,&LC. Thou canst read. The houses are, &c. A constant 
succession appears. The only vegetable substance is, &c. 
The tops are covered. 

Rule 2. Jlercury's diameter, &c. Venus'* mean distance 
—the sun's centre, &c. The earth's distance, &c, Virgil's 
tomb. People's own, &c. 



2SQ AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Rule 3. Whom do you see. With whom did, jkc. Of 
whom — of a cutler, him, &c. Jesus sought none but them, 
&c. Between him and her, &c Her that is negligent, &ic. 
They whom, &c. You should correct him, &c. — not me, &c. 
ThemanwAowi he raised, &c They w/iom- opulence, &e< — 
and whom luxury, &c. Columbus by whom, &c. To whom 
we are indebted, &c To wAowi we are indebted for the sub- 
lime, &c. 

Rule 6. !TAey'whom, &c. It certainly was not she. To 
be /mra. Whom do you think, &c. Thou art he, &c. If it 
was not he. Are /&ey, &c. Siebold is he, &c. Thales was. 
foe, &c. If I were he } &c It was not he; but I think it was 
she,&DC. Let thee and me, &c. 

Rule 7. S/ie having become, &c. — he descending. He 
destroyed, &c 

Rule 8. Are the only vegetables. Are given to man, &e. 
are the sure means, &c Are venerated by the, &c. Grow 
in China. Are intimately connected with the moral, &c. — 
Are the present inhabitants, &c. Are imperfectly known. — 
Are the principal forest, &c. Were first imported, &c. As- 
sist in the decomposition, &c. 

Rule 10. Humbles — it calls forth, &c. Affects us, &c. 
Is a conspicuous trait, &c. 7s so prepared, &c. Come* from 
the, &c. Forms the dress, &c. — is experienced in, &c. /$ 
preferable — because it furnishes us, &c Is found, &c. 

Rule 12. Can happen only , &c. The inhabitants believe, 
&c. Let us inform you, #c. We see flowers advance *most 9 
4'C. Dare we believe, &c. I heard him fay, &c. Bid him 
A:now, #c. 

NOTES, 

Note 1. And 2Aey are similar. Yet /ie had great. Bui 
Tie may return. But /ie will write. And never, never be 
thou to Heaven. 

Note 2. Readingwas his. Peace and honor are. Mo" 
ney making is his. Is death. 

Note 3. Thou mayst go. She, -that is. How dost thou 
do? Art thou well? 17e will not improve who is. This is 
the person, who was my teacher, She ,and Ae walked. J/e 
and she enjoy. Thou and I love. As well as he knows — than 
they are. William and he. 

Note 4. The climate of Chili is. Many words darken. 
Of Terradelfuego clothe. Rain never falls. Machineel 
grows in Jamaica. James' book. In the day time incline. 

Note 5. Grant those requests. — those or these books. — 
those boys. — those or these apples. 

Note 6. But by them (art and study) alone it (genius*.) 
Inter them, (the ashes,) and cover them with. Andits(the 
sun's absence) of cold, — in #s course. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMR. jgi 

Note 7. Who all my sense confinedst, or, didst confine. 
who makes, and who spreads abroad. who under standest. 
thouldst (each them. 

Note 8. Is enriched, &c. Is adorned with rows, #c. — 
Wants the two, &c. Presents the ruins, &c. 

Note 9. Fifteen pounds. 9498 miles. 200 years. 1584 
millions, &c. 160 mi/es. 60 or 70 tons. 25 bushels. 116 fons. 

Note 10. Every bunch, &c. Some of //i<?se as large as 
those on the elder, &c. 77m kind, &c. T/ia* sort of, &c. 
Another book. A man. Those of Titzuco, &c. 

Note II. £ac/i town or village, &c. The advantage of 
either an arm of the sea, &c. On each side of the Delaware, 
6lc, Sat each of them, &c. 

Note 12. Many a one. A Russian, &c. When a Greci- 
an lady enters a house — it is a sign — a friendly visit. An in- 
habitant, &c. And an academy, &c. 

Note 13. One of the finest, &c. The most dreadful, &c. 
Confers supreme dignity. His chief desire. A correct plan. 
Are perfect slaves. The Most High, &lc. And less wine. Is 
wore r/ectr and, &c. 

Note 14. Is the heaviest metal of, &c. Gold is the heavier. 
The belter reader, &c. The best writer of the three. Of the 
two roads is the better. 

Note 15. A piece of good land. The first two classes. 
The first three lines, &c. A piece of elegant broad cloth. 
A pair of new shoes. The next two classes. 

Note 16. The promoting of, or, Promoting temperance, 
&c. The viewing of, or, viewing, &c. The framing of, or, 
framing, &c. The worshipping of, &c. The burying q/*,#c. 

Note 17. Almost, constantly, &c. Unreservedly — a nat- 
ural death. — emits constantly, — so forcible — continually pros- 
trate, &c. Should be previous to that of. 

A remarkable curiosity, mostly in vertical positions. Was 
conformable. We saw him previous. He was not often pleas- 
ing. Should never be separated. Knowing thy many infirm- 
ities. 

Note 18. He does live in. I did not see anybody, or, 
I did see nobody. There are no people, or, there are not any 
people. There cannot be any thing. Neither precept nor 
discipline is so forcible. Nothing ever. 

Note 19. I have seen. He saw. Have taken. Ithas/aZ- 
len. Terribly shaken by earthquakes. He ran a great risk. 
The French language is spoken. 

Note 20. George Washington was. Jesus Christ proph- 
esied. Philosophers have made. We have read to day. Po- 
land was once. Our friends visited. Contributed, much. 

Note 21. He intended to see. He desired to go. We ex- 
pected to visit. To inspect. To explore. Would afford. To 
have written. To be ready 

P 



182 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

Note 22. And to proceed &c. — walking. And acting differ- 
ently, &c. 

Note 23. God is from &c— produces thirst. — is useful > is 
good. — always rises in the East. — Is equal &c. 

Note 24. Who labored and who rested. — afforded it to extend 
its authority. — To have visitedthe many &c. — would soon prove 
an, &c— Be that as it may, &c. — to have relieved him from that 
&c. — he was grozvn, &c. 

Note 25. After we had visited, &c. — had been three years, 
& c< — which before ftad&ees considered as, &c. — Aarf 5ee» en- 
larged, <&c. 

Note 23. Though he ^fg*? — unless he advance, &c. — If Pe- 
km fs, &c. — unless something prevent. In Scotland has, &c. 

Note 27. Which ever have inclined, and ever will incline, 
&c. — I /ta^e rcpl cmisenfedtnox shall not consent &c. — m/g7i/ Aat*e 
oee;i and probably were good. — /icwe &eerc carried and are carri - 
ed, &c. — renders and preserves thenij &.c. — A-eve ea£e?i and do 
eat for their, &c. 

Note 28. They have continued, &c. — Ztave nse/i from, &c. 
Might it not have been expected — would defends — he would 
die. — supposed to have been. 

Note 29. Resolved on going.— in respect to, or, about 
some parts. — thought of— of a tree— in which the Birmans. 
the head into water— the hand into hot oil— of burning.— by 
the grand Lama— by them — and by the more remote.— pre- 
judices against— of worship. — unacquainted ivilh money — 
and trade- "only by barter. — the walls of ancient. — abreast 
upon them. — perfumed with incense, and buried in a cloth- 
converse with the angels. — inferior to the. second, and ess$h- 
tiaUy different from iL 

•Note 30. Are the fundamental.— admits not of any doubt. 
marks a feeble. 

NoTfl 31. Of corn, rice, and various medicinal drugs:— 
mummies or embalmed bodies, standing upright in coffins, 
where it is supposed they have continued. — crucifixion, flay- 
ing alive, stoning, and plucking out. Neither the fear ofdeath. 
— wilh green trees and mossy grounds. — o( the houses — and 
the winter intensely cold. — and the grand display.— -and 
which may be learned. 

Notes 60, 61, and 62. So great that Vfo*T r -yet be was 
not.— is not so pleasant.— is not so good as.— is such, thiit. 
will pro or not. — villages nor houses. 



TO A KNOWLBD.GE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 183 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 
The Figures which precede the italicised, or corrected 
words, show what Rule or Note is applied in correcting 
them. Those marked with an R. are Rales ; the remaining 
ones are Notes. 

20. was discovered.— 13 greater or less degree.— 9 height 
of 50 write*.— 29 upon the rays.— 32 their sincerity. K 1 are 
declared.— 29 into nutriment.— 14 Jupiter is larger than 
any one of the planets, or the largest planet.— lb ruobieg 
the m .-l7 often happen from.— 16 the burning of, or, from 
burning.-** be thrown— 28 will be produced--o8 in which 
300 lamps, 17 are always kept burning. U Each plant, it 
12 Let him be informed, can be made, 28 from a solution. Al 
were at one time applied to. 27 has been, and is prepared. 
41 If m gratifying, it 9 were first imported. Correct. He 
will divide. |Q 

20 Gold which first induced, is there no longer found. 13 
anything about, Rl which mate a tolerable. 64 in e^ery 
kind offish. 57 was informed ^a/ from. 39 on behalf oj 
the committee. R 6 was fcel 51 on which side soerer he. 
19 m fcare g-ire/i rise. 40 of the King's son. 3d He went to 
see, 62 the sun or not. 26 be applied, 60 f/ia* they will 
not. 50 but that. 28 as can be from the finest. 63 entrance 
into the library, 63 driven from it. -70 He who is void, is 
like a beast. 69 to consider the cause of that variety. 5J 
Whence it follows. 56 Whither shall we fly! Rl are the 
organs. 20 and at the same time bore. 49 Wretched me. 
4$ than the title. 46 tfia» that excellent. 36 Sarafc and- 
17 7/ea%. 20 ftfw 6ecn a good christian. 27 has ground, 
and can g-rind. 38 with the plan, by the Manchester gcnlle- 
vian,as she called him. 23 It seems to be always giving out. 
R 1 toe constituted. R 1 are some-times, 19 ea/e??. 19 lie 
has see/?. 19 He saw, 24 to tove oe**fc 29 from or oh/ o/ pota- 
toes. 11 on eac/i side. CR was^rs* inhabited. R 10 is a 
hard. SB from which, 17 abundantly. 4: will remove. It 

10 has been used though it is now denounced. CR can 
be taught. 10 each book, R 1 was here. 23 icould afford. 
21 toumUheStrombolo. 23 be previously mixed, 23 will 
be produced. . . 

29 Anions: the North American. 17 last summer, 21 foviftr; 
58 in which their houses. It 2 Herschel's diameter. 9 35,112 
miles. 17 Look very neally. 15 has a piece of fine cloth. 

11 3, N 65 With whom shall we study! 17 Looks comfort- 
able. 31 JTVio live indolent, and tuAo are the mere nuisan- 
ces. 27 because they have continued 8 has opinions. 
6 to itself. 72 ant feeling. 13 more fierce. 13 The most 
common food. 26 contmiief.- 23 is expected to fall. C i\ 



184 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

always turn, 29 not to the air. 17 commonly folds up. R 1 
which science treats, actuate, 15 living animal bodies 31 
which those ^bodies execute. 60 nor savor. 8 is apperta- 
in - L 4 rhe 1 ^ b,llk - HI there are many caverns. 
19 2* Ar/iowa. 17 is invisible, 13 and is heavier. 29 a^airc*/ 
cases, with the mineral acids. C R into green. R 1 cau- 
ses. J9 I have *eew, gradually paring away. R 12 Zef u* 
6ear, 13 to the Supreme Ruler. 



Pointing or marking the pauses in the exercises of Punc- 
tuation. 

The learner will perceive that only the words, after which 
the points are requisite, are inserted in this Key. 

COMMA. 

Rule 1 1 . 1 . Censure, 2. No comma. 3. plants, 4. No comma. 

.Rule 2. 1. Grains, Beast, Russia. 2. Sea, day, tides. 3 No 
comma. 4. No comma 5. He, too, 6. Whale, animals, eater. 

Kule \ 6 1, Hope, life, misfortune. 2. Secured, misfortune, 
o. J ruth, fault. 4. Confucius, philosopher, good, wise. 5 Vir- 
tue, spirit, happiness. 6. Needle, vessels, direction. 7. No com- 



iiia 



Rule 4, 1. From New York, to Philadelphia. 2. Companion, 
tnend, dangerous. 3. Blossoms, beauty, autumn, no fruit, 

Rule 5. 1. Sihcia, Alumina, Ziroonia, Gluoina, Ytlria, Ba. 
rytes, btrontites, lime, and Masrnesia, are the nine earths, at pres- 
ent known. 2. No comma. 3, Self-coneeit, presumption, anil ob- 
stinacy, youth. 4. Mean-spirited, timorous, and base, 6. J% just- 
ly, loving mercy, God. 6. Slowly, execute promptly. 7. Honor 
trusted, upon, and esteemed. 8. Reading, writing, and thinking 
qualifications, student. 9. Grass, leaves, and moss. 10. Bodv 
understanding, heart, creation. 

Rule 8. 1. Life, eternity. 2. Science, is, diligently, discour- 
agon. 

Rule 9. 1. Said, year. 2. Said, kind, ear. 
Rule 10. Opinion, conduct, appearances, desires, inculcate. 
Rule 11. I. Refreshment, felicity. 2. Philanthropic, ostenta- 
tious, and vain. * 

Rule 12. 1. Present, existence, formation. Thus, six, Ene-- 
land, nine. ' b 

SEMICOLON. 

Rule I. 1, Ground; high; 2. Operations; reserve; progres- 
sive; idea. * ° 

COLON. 

Rule 1.1. Once: minds. 2. himself, rich : might be: state, 
lesson, would grow. 3. Science, judgment? intellect, reasoning 
wind, mathematics, philosophy. 6 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 185 

PARSING KEY. 

Explanation of the characters used in the Parsing 

Key. The letters over the parts of speech, 

show that these letters always stand 

for those parts of speech. 

a. b. c. d. 

Noun. Verb. Pronoun. Participle. 

e. f. g. h. i. 

Adjective. Adverb. Preposition. Conjunction. Interjection. 

The combination of any two of these, show that the word 
is considered to partake of the nature of both the parts of 
speech, which are represented by those letters. Example, 
da thus combined, stands for a participial noun, fh, for an 
adverbial conjunction, &c. &c. 

In parsing a word, follow the order, and you will find no 
difficulty, in understanding the meaning of the letters and fig- 
ures. In the first example, "Snow falls," you see a placed 
over it, which represents a noun, — in the order person comes 
next, and 3, is placed to show you, it is of the third person — 
1, is placed to show you, that i3 of the first or singular num- 
ber — and 1, again represents the first or nominative case, and 
a line from one, extending to the verb fall, shows that 
snow is nominative to that verb. 

Falls. Over falls b is placed, to represent a verb. — 31, 
united, show that the verb is of the third person singular, and 
the line extending from 31, to snow, shows that it agrees with 
its nominative snow, according to R. 1, which stands for Rule 
first. 

In parsing us on page 1, c represents a pronoun, 1, 
first person, 2, plural number, 3, objective case, and R 3, 
Rule 3. 

Sometimes the line from the nominative case to the verb 
is not made, but this seeming difficulty is remedied, by a line 
running from the verb, showing that it agrees with its nomi- 
native; as in the example, on the second page of the Parsing 
Key, "Heat expands bodies." From the 1, over heat, which 
shows that it is in the nominative case, you perceive there is 
no line to tell you directly to what verb it belongs; but from 
21, over expands, a lineextends toheat, showing that it agrees 
with heat for its nominative. In this way no uncertainty 
can arise. 

p2 



186 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

When a line commences at a figure, and runs out to the ex- 
tremity of the page, without showing the word to which it re- 
fers, the correspondent continuation of that character to the 
word, will be found in the next line, as in the example, com- 
mencing on the first page, "Thou readest — (continued on 
page 2) thy hook." From the 3 over book representing the 
objective case, a line extends to the extremity of the page, 
and its correspondent continuation, commences in the mar- 
gin on the first page, and goes to rmdest, which governs 
book in the objective case. 

When two or more lines run into each other, they show, 
both words agreeably to their nature, are influenced by the 
same word; as in the example on page 9. "Arsenic is ex- 
tremely brittle it is the softest metals The line running 
from 31, over the verb is, shows that it agrees with arsenic 
for its nominative. The line running from e2, over brittle, 
and intersecting the one extending to arsenic, shows that brit- 
tle is a describing adjective, belonging to arsenic. The line 
from c, intersecting the aforesaid line, shows that it stands 
for arsenic. The words in the "Parsing Key,*' marked in 
italic, are necessary to be supplied, in order to parse the sen- 
tences. 

When a line running from the number and person of a 
verb, forks,, and the forks run to two or more nominatives 
connected by and, it (the line) shows that the verb agrees 
with both those words, according to Rule 9, as in the exam- 
ple on page 11, "Eliza and Lydia," &,c. But if it runs and 
forks as aforesaid, and the nominatives are connected by any 
conjunction except and, the verb must agree with one or the 
other, according to Rule 10. 

dl, stands for a present participle. d2, for a perfect par- 
ticiple. d3, for a compound participle. 

el, stands for a defining adjective. e2, for a describing 
adjective, e3, for an interrogative adjective. When an ad- 
jective admits of comparison, the degree is represented by 
the figures 1, 2, or 3, according to the degree, as in the ex- 
ample on page 4, "The industrious bees make honey." — 
After e2, over industrious, 1 is placed, which shows that in- 
dustrious is in the positive degree. Had it been compara- 
tive degree, 2 would have been in the place of 1; and if su- 
perlative degree, 3 would have been placed to represent it 
It maybe perceived in the example, "Well-behaved chiU 
dren,&c." that over well-behaved, no figure is placed to re- 
present degree of comparison, because it cannot be compar- 
ed. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \$7 

Nc, stands for numeral cardinal adjective. No,, for 
numeral ordinal adjective, as in the example on page 10, 
"A man generally consumes about thirty two troy ounces," 
&c. Over thirty two nc is placed toshowthatit is a numeral 
cardinal adjective, this distinction , however, is not very im- 
portant. 

clnt, stands for a pronoun interrogative. 

The connexion made by conjunctions, cannot be distinctly 
shown in the Parsing Key, therefore there are no marks show- 
ing this connexion. 

Ab after 1, shows that the noun is nominative case abso- 
lute, as in the example on page 8, "Figs being abundant," 
&c. 

Ap after 1, representating the nominative case, shows that 
the noun or pronoun is in apposition with some preceding 
word or words, as over the word aim, on the top of page 13. 

In after 1, representing the nominative case, shows that the 
noun is in the nominative case independent, as over George, 
on page 8. 

bl, stands for active verbs, b2, for verbs of condition, com- 
monly called passive, and b3, for defective verbs. 

After the moods and tenses are treated, the proper charac- 
ters representing them, are then introduced, as also the dis- 
tinction between Regular and Irregular. 



PARSING KEY. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 33. 



a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
Snow falls. 



a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
Abigail sleeps. 



a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
Eliza exhorts. 



a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. a.3.2.1 b.32.RJ. 
Printers print. Men labor. Girls write. Boys play. 
a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. a.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
David studies. Richard mourns. Esther's pen trembles. 



a.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 

\ X 

John's horse runs. 
a.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
Uncle's son studies. 



a.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 
Peter's dog bites. ' 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 48. 

r c .lJ2.1 b.lS.Rl. C.3.2.3.R3. 

I We teach them. 

< 3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3. 

He instructs her. 

c.2.1.1 b.21.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3. 

Thou lovest him. 



c.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. C.1.2.3.R3, 
They teach ,j£ us. 
e.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3. 
She instructs him. 



e.1.1.1 b.ll.RL c2.L3.R3. 

I love thee. 

€.1.1.1 b.ll.Rl. cl.L2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3> 

! read my book 



c.2.1.1 b.21.RL 
Thou readest 



11 



PARKING KEY, 



c2.L2.R2. a.3.1.3,R3. c.3,1.1 b.31.Rl. c3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3. 



■^ 



thy 



book. 



13he dislikes her 



book. 



e.3.1.1. b.31.Rl. c.3 1.2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.2.1 b.32.RL C.3.2.2.R2. 



JX 



>< 



He studies his grammar. They disobey their 



a.3.1.3.R3. a.3.1.T b.31.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.3.2.2.R2. 
teacher. Religion adorns youth ; it dignifies their 
a.3.1.£ia C.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 H.31.R1. C.3.2/3.R3. a.3.1.1 
conduct; its excellence ennobles them. Heat 



b.3l.Rl. a.3.2.3.R3. c3.L2.R2. a.3.1.l" b.31.Rl. c3.23.R3. 
expands bodies; its absence contracts them. 
c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3. c.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. C.3.2.3.R3. 
He improves himself. They improve themselves* 



SECOND LESSON ON PA&E 40. 
6,3,1,9.R& a.3.8,1 b.a^.El. c3.L3.K3. q,B3£M. a.3.9.1 b.32. 

Her virtues adorn her; their virtues m- 

Rl. C.L2.3.R3. C.3.1.2.R2. a.3.2.1 b.32.RL C.3.2.3.R3. 

struct us; her virtues improve, them. 

i 
cl.L2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. cl.L3.R3. C.2.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 

My application improves me; thy application 

D.3LR1. c2.L3.R3. c2.L2.R2. a.3.1.1 b.31.RL cl.L2.R2. 

aggrandizes thee; thy application excels my 



a.3.L3.R3. c3.L2.R2. a.3.2.1 b.32.RL C.2.2.2.R2. a.3.2.1 
application, His writings instruct; your writings 



PARSING KEY. 



ill 



b.32.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. C.1.2.2.R2. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. 
teach folly j our writings teach morality. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 52. 
a.3.Ll b.31.Rl. dl.R5. a.3.1.3.R3. 



Treceptor is teaching chemistry 

a.3.2.1 dl.R5. a.3.1.3.R3. b.32.Rl. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 



Pupils studying geography make rapid progress. 

a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.1.2.3.R3. dl.R5. a.3.1.3.R3, 

Preceptress left us playing ball. 

a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. a.3.2.3.R3. dl.R5. a.3.L3.R3. 

Man beholds stars adorning night. 

a.3.3.1 dl.R5. eJJJ.Ra a.3.&3.R3. b.32.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. 



Men" abusing their™ servants incur censure* 
a.3.1.1 dl.R5. al&JJUL b.Sl.Rl. C.3.9.3.R3. a.3.9.1 

Emily instructing us improves? them, Children 



U32.R1. a.3.2.3.R3, dl.R5. c.3.1.1 

see korses running. 



d3.R5: 



^z. 



a.3.1..3.R3. b.31.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 



He having studied 
d3.Rf>. a.3.1.3.R3, 



grammar has left school. She having studied botany 



b.3l.Rl. C.1.2.3.R3. 
instructs us. 



iy 



PARSING KEY. 
PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 59. 



el.R4. 



e2.1.R4. 



a.3.2.1 



The industrious bees 
el.R4 p9 1.R4. a.3.1.1 



e2.1.R4. 

- ^ 

A peaceful mind 




enjoys 
el.R4. eM.R4. a.3.1.1, b.31.Rl. ^.3.1.2^2 ^4. a.3. L3.R3. 

its 



A virtuous conflict brings 



vn reward. 



elR4. e2.1.R4. e2.i.R4. a.3.1.1^ bg.Rl^c.&l. a.Ra. e2-l.R4. 



The dutiful young storksupports its 



old 



e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 




el.R4 



a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 

xr 



helpless par ent. An affable deportment jraces 



,3.1.3^^1 : e2.R4. a.3.1.1 b^LRl. e l.R4.e21.R4. 
' youth. The crowning harvesTlnspires the humble 



e<U.R4. a.3.1.3^3. el.Ri. el^RlT e2.1.R4. e2J.R4. a.3.1.1 



rueful mind. A cheerful, good, 



old 



man 



b.3hRLcll.'2.R2. a/3.1.3.R3. e2-R4 




a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. 
family. Well-behaved children attract 



e2.1.R4. 



e2.1.R4 



a.3.2.1 



Naughty disobedient children 



b.3£STTli.3.R3. e2"l.R4. a,3^.HL^U^ 
merlT^isIsteem. Good children iove employment; 

e2.1.R4. a.3.2.1 b:32.Rl, a^L3.R3. 

indolent children prefer idleness. 



PARSING KEY. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 60. 

el.R4 a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4 a.3.1.1 ! 



That man speaks good English. This woman 



b.3l.Rl. el.R4. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 



writes an excellent letter. 



el.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. 
These trees bear 



el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. eI.R4. e2.1.R4 

^<^ 4 "—^:x: ' — * — 

no fruit; those trees produce a plentiful 



S 1 

a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. el.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. c.2.2.1. 



b.22.Rl. el.R4. 



crop ; the former trees you may destroy ; the 



may de 



_^ 



X 



latter trees you must culture. Those students study 
. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32JU. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.2.1 

Latin; these students study Greek. Some people 
b,32.Rl. a.3J.£TL3. el.l.lW. e2.1.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. e2.1.R4. 

love reading. Many rich men support indigent 
a.3.2.3.R3. el.l.N47. - e2.1.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. a.3.1.1 j 

people. Many beautiful flowers wither. John Milton 
b.3l?Rl. el.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. "a.3.Lj U31.R1. eI.N47. e2.R4. 

wrote several poems. Dr. Young was another poetical 
a.3.1.1.R6. el.l.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. e2.R4. " el.R4. a.3.1.1 

writer. Few persons are inculpable. Each pupil 



fc.3l.Rl. a.3.1.3.R3. 



el.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.RL el.R4. el.l.R4. 



recites Geography. Every man helps a little 



Yiii ARSING KEY. 

e2.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl e2.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. 

Chlorine gas discharges vegetable colors; it burns 

el.R4. el.R4' a.3.2.3.R3. F. unders. a.3.1.3.R3 



all the metals even it burns gold. 



a.3.2.1 
Chemists 



b.32.Rl. C.1.2.3.R3. F. 



F. 



F. 



a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. v 



do inform us not satisfactorily how friction produces 
a.3J.3jt3 

caloric. 

PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 70. 
c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. el.R4. a.3.1.1.R6. a.2.1.1.In.R7. c.2.1.1 b.21.Rl. 



He is' the man. George, thou lovest 

C.2.1.2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3. a.3.1.1 el.R4. a.3.1.1.Ap.R6. 

\ thy bible. John rTCurran, the statesman, J 
b.31.Rl. e2.1.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. a.3.2.1. Ab.R8. dl.R5. e2.1.R4 " 



made eloquent speeches. Figs being abundant, 

c.1.2.1 b,12.Rl. el.R4. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. a.2.2.1.In.R7. c.2.2.1 
we purchased a large supply. Boys, you 

b.22.Rl. F. c.3.1.1.Ab.R8. d3.R5. F. el.R4. e2.1.R4. 

study finely. He being afflicted sorely a potent 
a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. e2.1.R4. a.2.1.1.In.R7. c.2.1.1 b.21.Rl. 

prescription is necessary. Henrietta, thou makest 



e2.1.R4. a.3.l.3.R3. a.3.1.1 el.R4. a.3.1.1.Ap.R6. b.31.RL 



! fine progress. Judas, a traitor, betrayed 



C.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3. 
his Lord. 



PARSING KEY. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 73. 
e2.R4. a.3.1.1 b.Sl.Rl. e2.1.R4 g. cl.R4.. 

Atmospheric air is indispensable in ail 

el.N47. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.Ll 



the common processes of combustion. The atmosphere 
b.31.Rl. — — — — • g. el.Rl. a.3.2.3.R3. g. el.R4. 
extends over the space ofseverai miles above the 
a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 b.Sl.Rl. el.N47. e2.1.R4. 
surface of the earth. It is this great 

a.3.1.1.R6. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. el R4. a.3.1.1 b.Sl.Rl. 



extension of the atmosphere which extension occasions 

c3.L2.R2. a.3.1.3.R3. el.Ri. a.3.1.1 g. el.R4. el.R4. a.3.I.3.R3. 

its weight; tiie pressure of such a weight, 
—* **>* 

b.Sl.Rl. el.l.N47. e2.1.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.8,L3.R3. 

produces many important effects in the economy 
g. a.3.1.3.R3> e2.R4. a.3.1.1 F. b.Sl.Rl. e2.R4. 



of nature. Atmospheric air chiefly preserves animal 
a.3:i.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.2.1 el.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.R'l. el.R4. e2.R4. 



heat. The lungs, which lungs imbibe the oxygen 



a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. b,32.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. 

gas from the air; impart it to the 

a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. a.3.1.1 bc.31.Rl, el.R4. a.3.1,3.R3. g. C.3.1.2.R2. 

.XL 



blood \ the blood gives out the caloric, in its 



X PARSING KEY. 

a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. 



circulation, to every part of the body. A 
a.3.1.1 F. b.31.Rl. g. el.nc.N47. e2.R4.. a.3.2.3.R3. 



man generally consumes about thirty-two troy ounces 

I 

g. e2.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.nc.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. el.R4. el.N47. 
of oxygen gas in twenty-four hours. An inch 
e2.R4. a.3.1.1 g. e2.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. b.Sl.Rl. g 



square column of atmospheric air, weighs about 
el.nc.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. 
fifteen, pounds. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 81. 
el.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. el.Rl. el.R4. a.3.1.1.R6. el.R4. 

The sun is the chief fountain which 



a.3.1.1 



b.Sl.Rl. 



el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. e2.R4. 



fountain furnishes the earth with a regular 
a.3.1.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. h. el.R4. a.3.1.1 b.Sl.Rl. C.3.1.3.R3.. 

supply of heat, and which fountain renders it 

^ "" 

e2.1.R4. g. da.3.1.3.N43. el.R4. e2.R4. h. e2.R4. a.3.2.3.N43. 



capable of supporting the animal and vegetable creations. 

a.3.1.1 h. e2.R4. a.3.1.1 b.32.R9. el.R4. e2.R4. 

*— ^— 



Water and atmospheric air are the natural 



a.3.1.1.R6. g. a.3.2.3.R3. a.3.1.1 b.3l.Rl. el.R4. a.3.1.1.R6.. 
1 food of plants. Caloric is the name^ 

q2 



PARSING KEY. x j 

d2.R5. ~g. e2.R4. a*3.2.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. h. g> e.l.R4. 

given by modern chemists to fire, or to the 

a.3.1.3.R3.g.a.3.1.3.R3. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. F e2.1.R4 

matter of heat. Caloric is every where indispensaDle 

g.el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. h. g. a.3.1.3.R3. a.3.1.1 

to the existence of man and of^ beast. Platina 

b.31.Rl. el.R4. e2.3.R4. a.3.1.1.R6. g. eI.R4. el.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. 



is the heaviest metal of all the metals 
h. c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. h. a.3.1.3.R3. h. a,3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 
and it has neither taste nor smell; it 

D.3LR1. f. el.N47. eSJ.Rl. el.^47. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.1 b.3LRl. 

is nearly as hard as pure iron is 
h. c.3.1.1^ b.31.Rl. e2.1.R4. g, eLR4.*~e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 
and it 



is susceptible of a fine polish. 
a.3.1.1 h. a.3.1.1 c.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. C.3.2.2.R2. a.3.1.3.^: 
who obey 



Eliza and Lydia who obey 
b.32.R9. e2.1.R4.' a.3.1.3.R3. 
make great improvement. 



their 



teacht 



a.3.1.1 h. a.3.1.1 c.3.1.1 -b.31.Rh C.3.1.2.R2. a.3.1.3 



Jacob or William who loves 
b.31.R10. f. 

improves rapidly. 



his 



boo 



xu 



PARSING KEY. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 109. 
a.3.1.1 W.1.1.1.31.R1. a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 bl.LU.31.Rl;. 

Virtue adorns youth.. He delights 

g. a.3.1.3.R3. c.2.1,1 bl.l.U.21.RL c,2.1.2Jl2.. a.3.1.3.R3* 

in study. Thou improvest thy talents. 

c.2.2.1 bl.l.fc2r22.Ri. f. *XUr- Hi.l.2.3LRL g. 

You studied faithfully. Iron was ia 

a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4, e2.1.R4. 



use in the • time of Moses.. A. bad 
a.3.1.1 bl.2.1.5.31.Rl. el.R4. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.3:R3. a.2.2.1.In.R7. . 

life will make a bad end. Boys,. 

bl.l.2.5.22.Rl. unders. [c.2.2.2.R2. a.3,2.3.R3. bl.l.2.5.22.Rl. . 
love 



you 



your parents. Temper 



unders. el.R4. a.3.t.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 
ye the vivacity of youth with a mixture 
g. e2.1.R4. a»3.1.3.R3. el.R4. e2.1.R4. h. e2il4. a.3.1.1 



of serious thought. A good and proper education 
M.1.1.1.31.RI. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. bl.1.3.5. . c.3.1.1 bL1.1.5.3LRl. 
has a. tendency to humble. He can improve 

n. b. C.3.U trl.l.l.5.31.Rl. v c.3.1.1. bl.l.l.4.31.Rl. 
if (grant) he will improve.;. He might have improved 
C,3.1.1 b.l.2.1.4.31.Rl. f. e2.1.R4. bl.2.5.22.Rl. unders. a.3J.3.R3. 



he had been ^ not indolent, tiejt ^ ye virtue 



PARSING KETT. 
bl.2.3:5.Rl£ C.2.2.2.R2. e2.R4. a.3.1.3.Ap.R6. h. 



Xiu 



be your principal aim. If (allow) 

C.2.1.2.R2. a.3.1.1 bLLL5.3LRL g. c2.L3.R3. bl.l.2.5.21.RL 

thy 4 brother trespass against . thee rebuke ~ 

unders. c3.L3.R3. h. c.3.1.1 bl.LL5.31.RL ' bl.l.2.5,2LRL 

thou him; if he M4 repent, forgive 

^ , , — - , 

unders. c3.L3.R3. clnt.3.1.1 — ~ _ —.. — bLLLl.31.Rl. 



thou him* Who (or what person) can preserve 

>*» ---,--- . \ ^ — -J 

c3.L3.R3. c.3.2.1 bl.2.1.3.32.RL C.3.2.2.R2. a.3.L3.R3. 

task. 



himself. They may have forgotten their 
cl.2.1 bl.2.1.5.12.RL e3.R4. a.3.L3.R3. bl.1.3.5.. e2.R4. 



shall do what thing to inherit eternal 



a.3.L3.R3. 
life? 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 118. 
el.R4. el.nc.N47. e2.R4. a.3.2.1 b2.1.1.2.32.RL g, a.3.L3.R3, 



The first christian churches were founded in Asia. ' 
c.3.1.1 b2.LL3.31.Rl. el.R4. unders. a.3.1.1 b2.LL5.31.RL 

It has been ascertained that thing water can be obtained 
g. e2.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. el.R4. e2.R4. ! a.3.1.1" b2.1.1.2.31.Rl. 
by artificial means. The lightning rod was invented 
g. a.3.L3.R3. c.3.1.1 b2.1.LL3LRL el.R4. unders. el. R4. 
by Dr. Franklin. ' jfF is reported ; that thing the 



Zi v PARSING KEY. 

a.3.1.1 WU.1.2.31.R1. t g. a.3LlJim h. e2.R4. 



^clf" was imported first from Persia. If lemon 
a.3.1.1 b2.1.1.5.31.Rl. g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. e^R^a^.R^ 
jlice be dropped upon any kind of buff color, 
el.R4. a.3.1.1 b2.1.1.5.31.Rl. t g. a.3.1.3.R3. 



the ^dye will be discharged instantly. In Germany 

el.R4. a.3.2.1 b2.1.U.32.Rl. g. a.3.2.3.R3. eLR4. a.3.2.1 

the seeds are used of grapes which seeds 

b2.1.l.3.32.Rl. 



h. el.R4. a.3.2.1 b2.1.1.3.32.Rl. h. 



have been pressed and which seeds have been boiled, as 

el.R4. e2.1.R4. a.3.Ll unders. g. a^L3.R3. a.3.1.1 

an excellent 9 substitute is used for coffee^Botany 

j b2.ti.a.,3ffii/ g. a.3.1.3.R3. g. el.2.R4 a.3.2.3.R3 ; 

has been cultivated in Ooaa foTmore^ *years than 
el.nc.R4. a.3.2.1 undo* c.3.9.1 b3.1.2.32.Rl. b9.1.3.3. 

lOOcT^years are. They ought to have been learned. 

c.3.1.1 b3.1 J.31.R1. p&1.3.5. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.^b^LL^l.Rl. 
f^ought to be respected. Blue color can be extracted 
g. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. g. a.3.1.3.R3. 
from the "^sfraw ofbuckwheat. 
bl.2.1.1.21.Rl. c.2.1.1 el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. c^.l.Lb^LLSl.Rl. 
Has?^ thou a friend? Thou hast 



) t el.R4. e2.1.R4. h. e2.1.R4. 



a.3.1.3.R3. 



indeed a rich and large supply. 



202 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE 

It is presumed, that after the scholar can parse fluently, 
without looking at the Parsing Key, all the examples con- 
tained in it, that he will then be fully able to analyze the fol- 
lowing without difficulty. It is proper that every pupil should 
not only endeavor to transpose these sentences, but should 
be exercised in transposing portions of suitable poetry, eve- 
ry day after he has got thus far, while engaged in the study 
of Grammar . 

TRANSPOSITION 
OF THE POETRY ON PAGES 123-1-5. 

ON THE POWER OF CUSTOM. 

Judge we men and things by nature ? habit can efface it, 
interest can overcome it, or policy can take the place of it: 
Judge we them by actions? uncertainty divides these ac- 
tions: Judge we them by passions? dissimulation hides 
those passions: Judge we them by opinions? they still take 
a wider range : Find you, if you can, that thing, in nature, 
which thing you cannot change. 

ON A TRUE FRIEND. 

Hast thou a friend? Thou hast indeed a rich and largo 
supply, thou hast a treasure, if it be well managed, to serve 
thy every need, till thou die. 

THE CREATOR'S WORKS ATTEST HIS GREATNESS. 

It matters or argues what thing, though all things move 
round the dark terrestrial ball, in solemn silence ? It mat- 
ters or argues what thing, though no real voice be found 
amid their radiant orbs? For they all rejoice in reason's 
ear, and they utter forth a glorious voice, and they are forev- 
er singing, as they shine, the hand that made us is Divine* 

Note. All is an adjective referring to the pronoun they-) Rule 
4. Singing is a participle referring to the pronoun they, R 5. Hand 
is nominative to is. Divine is an adjective referring to hand. ''The 
hand that made us is Divine, 1 is an objective phrase, governed by 
the participle singing. 

SOUND IMITATING RELUCTANCE. 

Who or what person ever resigned this pleasing anx- 
ious being (or life) to be a prey to dumb forgetfulness ; or 
who ever left the warm precincts of this cheerful day, and 
who did not cast one longing, lingering look behind? 

Note. Prey after Ho be' is in the objective case according to 
Rule 6. Behind is a preposition governing him understood, R 3. 



PARSING KEY- 
e3.R4 a.3.Ll b.31.RL el.R4. 



e2.3.R4. 



Vi 
a.3.1,3.R3. 



~lZlp. "What town is the most populous 
a&l3Sfc'g:< ^4. *.&! £,&& eZM a.3.1.1 b.3LRl^2.R4. . 
"town Tn^the^world?;;"VVhat study is preferable? 
el.R4. a.3.1.1 b.3LRl. e3.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. e3JU. a.3.1.1 
That man instructs which girl ? f[What p erson 
b.ZLRl. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. el.R4. . a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. e 3.R4.^ 
teadieU feat ""boy? Th at man jl oes what j 
a.3.1.^R3. e3.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. e LN47. e^BA^ jJAA^^ 
Uring? Which road is ;the best ^oad? 
el.l.N47. e2.1.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.Rl. el.N47. e2.1.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. 



Many wicked people make what pitiable excuses J 

z C.3.2.2.R2. a.3.2.3.R3. .el.R4. a.3.1.1 bJil.Rl. 

fSr^ their "^Tns. The sinner must endure 
el'.R4. a.3.1.£R3. el.R4. a.3.2.1b2^.Rl. g e2.1.R4. 
what misery! What mercies are extended to poor, 
e2.1.R4. e2.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. c.1.1.1 b.ll.Rl. el.R& a^&S.R3. 



frail mortal man. I like .what things' 

c.2.1.1 b.21.Rl. el.N47. eL R4. *.Z3 Xp. e2.N47. 

thou likesT" the same ~~lBngs. Heated 

e2.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. el.R4. e2.1.R4. a^3.R3. 



phosphorus acid emits a disagreeable smell. ' 
a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. e2.N47. e2.R4. a.3.L3.R3. eLR4. a.3.1.1 



Water absorbs liquid fluoric acid. Whatever thing 
n 



PARSING KEY v ii 

b.31.Rl. el.R4. a.3.1.1 — — -v — — b.31.Rl. el.R4. 



purifies that thing or the same thing fortifies the : • 

a.3.1.3.R3. el.TUl. el,nc.R4. a.3.2.1 b.32.RI. el.R4. e2.1.R4 

( \, . 



heart. Those three apples make a 



fine 



/"" 



a.3.1.3.R3. c.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. C.3.1.2.R2, el.no.R4' a.3.1.3.R3. 



appearance. He loves 



his 



first preceptor. 



PARSING LESSON ON PAGE 68. 

el.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl.- el.R4. F. e2.1.R4. L3.L1.R6. 

The air is that very light ^ fluid 

el.R4, a.3.1,1 b.Sl.Rl. C.1.2.3.R3. F. contraction. 



which fluid surrounds us everywhere (in every place.) 
a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. F. el.R4. e2.R4. a.3.1.1.RS. a.3.1.1 



Bees-wax is doubtless a vegetable product. Arsenic 
b.31.Rl, F. e2.1.R4. e.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. el.R4. e2.3.R4. a.3.1.1.R6. 

is extremely brittle ; it is the softest metal. 
e2.1.R4. a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. F. e2.1.R4 e2.R4. el3.2.1 

Pure iron is extremely ductile. Saccharine liquors 
! f F. b.32.Rl. e2.R4. a.3.2.3.R3. F. de.N47. e2.R4 
principally form acetic acids. Usually prepared acetic 
a.3.1.1 b.31.Rl. el.R4. e2.R4 e2.1.R4. e2.1.R4. a.3.1.1.R6. 
acid is a well-known, pleasant, yellow liquor. 



e2.N47. e2.R4. a.3.1.1 



F. 



b.31.Rl. el.R4. a.3.1.3.R3. 



Pure nitric acid permanently stains the skin. 



TO A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 203 

INVOCATION. 

Do thou (God) apply not thy gifts to my wish, but apply 
thou them to my wants. Grant thou that thing to me, 
though it be unasked, which thing thou know T est to be good. 
Deny thou that thing, though it is asked, which thing thou 
knowest to be ill. 

Note. Do apply is a verb in the imperative mood agreeing with 
its nominative thou. The first thing is in the objective case govern- 
ed by knowest, R 3. Good is an adjective belonging to the noun 
thing. The second thing is governed by knowest. Ill is an ad- 
jective belonging to thing. R 4. 

LOVE, HOLY, DIVINE, APPROVED OF GOD. 

But why should I speak to thee of divine love ? Who is 
happy, and is not eloquent of love ? Who is holy and who is 
pure as thou art pure, and is not a temple where her glory 
ever dwells, where her fires ever burn, and where her per- 
fect eye ever beams? 

THE FRAILTY OF MEN AND THINGS. 

How frail men and things are ! how momentary both men 
and things are ! They are a fantastic chase of shadows 
hunting for shades ! The gay people and the busy people 
are equal, though they are unlike ; they are equal in wisdom, 
though they are differently wise ! Through flowery mea- 
dows, and through dreary waste, one class is bustling into 
death, and the other class is dancing into death! The scenes 
x)f business tell to us what things men are : The scenes of 
pleasure tell to us what things all things are besides men. 
There (in the scenes of business) we despise other people, 
and here (in the scenes of pleasure) we despise ourselves. 

Note. Equal is an adjective referring to the noun people. — 
Unlike is an adjective referring to the pronoun they. The first thing 
is in the objective case governed by tell There is an adverb quali- 
fying the verb despise. 

SUNRISE. 

But yonder comes the powerful king of day rejoicing in 
the east. The lessening cloud, the kindling azure, and the 
mountain's brow, which are now illumined with fluid gold, 
betoken gladly his,^the sun's) near approach. Lo, now, he 
(the sun) is entirely apparent, and he looks in boundless ma- 
jesty abroad, aslant (or across) the dew-bright earth, and 
aslant the colored air, and he, high gleaming from afar, sheds 
the shining and the burnished day, that plays on rocks, and 
on hills, and on towers, and on wandering streams. 

Note. King is nominative to comes. Yonder is an adverb 
qualifying comes. Cloud, azure, and brow, are nominative to beto- 
ken. Apparent is an adjective referring.to the pronoun he, K 4. 



204 AN EASY AND LUCID GUIDE, &c. 

Illume thou that thing, which thing is dark in me: raise 
thou and support thou that thing which thing is low in me- 

THE END, 



ERRORS. 

The reader is requested to correct the following errors, 
which were not discovered in reading the proof sheets, un- 
til too late for their correction. 

31st page, 14th line from the bottom, after 'few,' omit 
'more'' in reading. 

32. 1st line on top, for 'persons' read person. 

32. 7th line from bottom, for 'should be read carefully,' 
read 'should be carefully read.' 

32. After 'swine,' make a period. 'Hiatus' begin with 
a capital, and after 'species,' instead of a colon, a comma 
should be inserted. 

61. In the bottom line for 'passed,' read have passed. 

64. 3d line from the bottom, for 'Not at all,' read 'Nona 
at all? 

70. 8th line from the top, for 'was asserted,' read 'were 

asserted. 

94. 4th line from top, for 'tha,' read 'that. 

100. For 'was it possible,' read 'were it possible: 

102. In conjugating 'to be,' preceded by if,— 'thou b<? 
should be preceded by 2, and 'he be*> by 3. 

122. 7th line from bottom, for the 'second they,' read 
'the second thing? 

124. 8th line from bottom, for 'what are new, read 
'what are men? 

141. 10th line from bottom, for in the 'first future tense, 
read 'the past tense? 

147. For 'Rule 43,' read 'Note 43.' 

155. For 'Prussian priests,' read 'Russian priests? 

162. 16th line from top, for 'prospect,' read 'prospects? 

160. 15th line from bottom, for 'arc* allowed,' read 'were 

allotted? 

* 159. " 5th line from bottom, for 'semicolon,' read 'colon? 

161. 7th line from bottom, after 'curiosity,' mark a 
'period? 

169. 11th line from top, for 'laat,' read 'last. 
1/5. In the example given to illustrate a hyperbole, in- 
sert the word her, before 'hair blacker.' 



W.^J-K-3^: i 



A TABLE OF DEFINITIONS AND RULE§, BY MOBEKT g. HOLLO WAY. 

This Table is designed to be spread before the learner, in the analysis of sentences, as exhibited in the Parsing Key. 



ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a noun, is— a noun, and why f P* 
son, and why? Number, and why? Case, and why? 



The order of parsing 
formed? Mood, a'.d v, 



b, is— a verb, and why? Ifitii 
only called passive,) how is J 
Tens..', and why? Person and 
th what nominative? Rule:- 



person, and why? Gender and n 



The order of parsing a participle, is— a participle, and ty| 
fame the three participles. Present, pcrlect,andcompaaJ 
ndwhy? To what does it refer? Hvle. 



The order of parsing an adjective, is 
why? If describing, degree ofcompari; 
what does it refer? Role. 



Tl 

Or it 


sorde 
[the « 


of parsing an a 
ord called advo 








Pbek 


Th 
why? 

Tl, 


orde 


ofp 

of pa 


raing a pi 

Comjd 
rsingacoi 


Th 


orde 


ofp 





nor thing; as, Man, LA,. 

nonentity or abteoaL 

Sot ling, iuik.,',1 ,.., 

a) """ a .H. ...eaiirv. 



2. The second person denotes the person or thing 

3. The third person is the person or thing spoken ( 

1. The singular number represents one person or thing. 

2. The plural number represents more than one persoi 

1. The nominative case is the actor, or receiving subject 
of the action when nominative to a verb of condition. 

The possessive case denotes the possessor of something. 

The ohjirlire rose represents the object of an action, or 
of a relation. And it generally follows a verb, participle, or 
preposition. 

i is a word which signifies action or condition. 



2. Verbs which do not form the second tense and perfect 
participle by adding d, or ed, to the present tense, are called 



2. The Imper 
st person, addn 

do, or not to do ; 
'ays of the second person, an. 

3. The Infinitive mood e: 



e those which are used 
to assist, deny, or inter- 



tod expresses the will of a speaker c 

the agency of a second person, t 

n; and its agent or nominative is al 

mostly understood. 



;rows out of some stated condition of thing; 
The first len.iv denotes a present action c 
The secoml tense represents past action 



and conveys 
>n which was 



T\*ffi tense denotes f,m 



Pronouns. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
sometimes a representative for a sentence, or m 
sentence. 

The principal pronouns in the English language 
me, tho>:,thy or thine, thee, he, his, him, she, her, it 
you, their, them, who, whose and whom. 

PARTrCIPLES. 

A Participle is a word which expresses the acti 
in, or descriptivo quality of a noun or pronoun. 

The present participle always ends In ing, and denotes 



e, J, my, 



The Perfect iwr:irijilc, which ends in «/, n,cn, or t, 
denotes finished action. 

The present participles, having, or being, placed be- 
fore perfect participles, form a compound participle, itnply- 
tion completed before the time referred to. 



Adjectives. 
An adjective is a word used with a noun 
ask a question. 

e, point c 



define or de- 
scribe it ; or to ask a question. 

1. Defining adjectives define, point out, or specify di- 
directly, which or what things, or how much. 
°. Describing adjectives express the qualities and con- 
ons of things in different degrees. 1st. They designate 
quality, kind, or sort of things. 2d. They describe the 
condition, situation, or relative circumstances of things. 

3. Which and what, when used with nouns expressed "i 
understood, in asking questions, may be called interrogative 

1. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object, 



les or lessens the posi- 
;s or lessens the posi- 



■Milium in, lease in 

The comparative degree incr 
signification. 

'VliQ.suj)t:rliitivc. degree incrc 
ifs highest or lowest terms. 



Adverbs, (properly contractions or particles,) express the 
manner, ti nie , or place, of the actions of verbs, and partici- 
ples, and the degrees of adjectives and adverbs. 



Prepositions serve 
•ronouns, and toco 
s a peculiar adjectiv 
tive case 


e'ofspec. 


he relatio 
s. Or b 
fication, g 


Conjunctions are 
sentences, or words 


CoiMDT. 




Interjections are a 
Press the sudden em 


;*;;; 


^Se" 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule 1. The verb must agree with 

Hiiber and person. 

Run: . A noun or pronoun in the possess ii 
gpyerned by the noun which it possesses. 

Rule 3. Verbs, p.nlieiples, and prepositions 
Hive case. 

Rule 4. Adjectives refer 
ed or understood. 





Parti 


riples 


refer to 


lit',,!,'"","', 


LE 6. 


Wlie 

i the i 


aadir 


pronou 


as in appo 


SB 


ect add 
verbt 


> agree wi 

lllilepellil 




pronouns c\p' 



pronoun i 

Rule 8. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 

a detached phrase, without any verb to agree with it, is in 
the nominative case absolute. 

Rule 9. Two or more nouns united by and, form an ag- ' 
gregate plural, and must have verbs, nouns, nnd pronouns, I 
agreeing with them in the plural number. j 

Rule 10. Two or more nouns in the singular number j 
united by or or nor (or any conjunction except and) mast 
have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the I 

Rule 11. The infinitire mood, or part of a sentence, is 

metimes the nominative of a verb, or the object of a verb, 
participle, or preposition. 

Rule 12. The verbs which follow bid, can, do, dare, feel, 
hear, help, let, make, need, and see, arc in the infinitive mood 
without the sign to prefixed. 

Addition to Rule 12, for the philosophic grammarian., Way, 

in, nil, mieltt, rouU, uouttl, and ihmltl govern the infiliitiru 

mod without the sign to. 

Rule 13 The verb "to be" in colloquial style docs 
not govern the objective case, but is frequently followed by a 
-uninative case in apposition with the preceding nominative. 

Notb 47. Adjectives are often used to modify ihe mean- 
ing of other adjectives, and to express the nimbly "1 things 
in connexion with the actions by which that quality is pro- 
duced. 



